My Animal Collection: How a Herpetologist Keeps American Toads, Bufo (Anaxyrus) americanus and Related Species, Part II

Hello,

Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks very much for your kind comment and interesting questions.

American and Fowler’s toads are very similar in appearance…in fact, you and your friend may both be right, as their ranges overlap, and the 2 frequently hybridize. However, there are a few characteristics that you can check to distinguish one from the other:

1. American toads have 1-2 large warts within each of the large black-colored blotches on their skin, while Fowler’s have 3 or more warts within each blotch.

2. The American toad’s chest and abdomen is usually spotted with black; these areas on the Fowler’s toad are almost entirely unspotted (a few widely spaced dots may be present).

3. Behind the eye is a raised boney line, known as the cranial ridge, which is easy to see. In American toads, this ridge is separated from the paratoid gland (the large “wart” in the same area) or connected to it by a thin spur. In the Fowler’s toad, the cranial ridge touches the paratoid gland.

As you can see, there is some overlap, so it is best to check all three points. A hybrid individual that I found in Virginia had characteristics of both species – 4 warts within each blotch and a heavily spotted abdomen.

The two dwell in slightly different habitats, especially where they overlap, but again this does not always hold true. Most often, American toads are found in fields and along forest edges, while Fowler’s toads tend to inhabit drier, sandy areas. In NY, Fowler’s toads may be found right among the sand dunes, in sight of the surf, along beaches on Long Island’s south shore. Both species will also colonize gardens, parks, farms and vacant lots.

Concerning the canned grasshoppers: for small herps, I remove the legs and wings, and divide the body into sections (the point where the thorax joins the abdomen makes for a “neat” break). By rotating the different body parts given to your toads, you can assure that they are consuming, over time, an entire insect.

It’s a fine idea to feed canned insects to your fish…I’m sure your Oscar will gobble them right up. I rinse them off first, in order to remove the oils that accumulate during processing, and have fed several types (snails, shrimp, grasshoppers, silk worms) to Jack Dempseys (a Cichlid), channel catfish and pumpkinseed sunfish. I also sometimes toss a bit of a grasshopper into my community aquarium – guppies, swordtails, barbs and tetras of all types go into a literal feeding frenzy each time!

Please let me know how your feeding trials go, and what you learn concerning the identity of your toads.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio

Hello Joseph,

Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for your interesting questions and comments.

I commend your interest in oak toads, Bufo quercicus. It’s sad that more attention isn’t paid them…based on what I know of related species, I believe they could be bred in captivity. Given there size – barely topping 1 inch snout-vent length, they would be a great choice for those with limited space.

I’ve kept oak toads in an exhibit with Eastern narrow-mouthed toads (a difficult species that favors ants as food) and Eastern spadefoot toads. They were a real delight – as bold as American toads, and very prone to daytime activity. They favored all sorts of tiny insects, including certain but not all ant species, termites, ¼ inch crickets, tiny earthworms and aphids.

In the wild, they are unlike many toads in that they may opportunistically breed after warm rains at nearly any time – from April through October in much of Florida, or approximately May though August in the northern portion of the range (they occur as far north as southern Virginia). Frogs that follow such a breeding strategy will often respond to increased misting and the presence of a pool of water without the necessity of other cues. This has worked well in breeding marine and Colorado River toads, among others.

However, to be sure, it would be best to learn where your stock originates from. Those from the south (trade animals will likely come from Florida) might require a dip in temperature to 60 F for 30-45 days, followed by a gradual warming to 75 or so and heavy feeding. After about 2 weeks, you can put them into a rain chamber (please let me know if you need details) or perhaps just place them in an aquarium with 3-4 inches of water and plenty of floating plastic plants and cork bark. Spraying frequently with warm water may be all that’s needed in the way of “rain”.

Regarding wild-caught insects, I’ve always felt that the benefits delivered far outweighed the risks, with certain exceptions. It certainly should follow that wild caught insects increase the risk of pesticide/parasite related problems, but it just isn’t borne out, in my experience.

Pesticides are, in general, manufactured with the risk of secondary poisoning possibilities in mind, and most are fairly specific. Even in earlier times, the problems caused to non-target species were often the result of food-chain accumulation. DDT, far more toxic than most in use today, for example, did not kill animals that consumed poisoned insects but rather accumulated in their tissues and affected raptors, at the top of the food chain, by causing a thinning of the shells of their eggs. My work with food market turtles (primarily Florida softshells) in NYC has revealed a similar phenomenon – the turtles, both predators and scavengers in their habitats, are in all respects healthy, but older adults show high mercury levels (a real danger to people, especially pregnant women, who consume them).

I do recall a hornbill that died of Warfarin (mouse poison) poisoning at the Bronx Zoo in the early 80’s, but an autopsy that animal indicated that it had fed nearly exclusively on mice for a very long time. A DEC biologist on LI is attempting to link the scarcity of striped skunks there to their habit of eating huge quantities of earthworms on golf courses, but this is a unique situation – golf courses are heavily sprayed, and earthworms ingest soil directly.

Snails are notorious for serving as reservoirs of parasites that require a second host. Even here I have not experienced problems, as most such parasites are fairly specific as to their hosts. Some zoos put snails, crayfish and minnows through a methylene blue bath before using them as food, but this was not the practice at the zoos I have worked in, even as regarded the rarer species kept. I don’t know, offhand, of any terrestrial invertebrates that act as hosts for parasites that could then be transferred to captive herps. I’m quite sure they exist, given the absolutely mind-blowing twists and turns involved in the life cycles of many parasites, but I haven’t run across any related problems…it may be host specificity again.

Although pesticides are hopefully not a concern with farmed insects, I imagine that potential parasites and pathogens are common in large scale operations…I’ve identified, without looking carefully, 4-5 additional insect species in a single shipment of crickets, for example. Waxworms, butter worms, minnows and earthworms are either collected or kept under semi-natural conditions, again opening the door to certain risks.

The main concerns I’ve had recently revolve around the large scale spraying done to control mosquitoes bearing West Nile Virus. The insecticide used is said to be short-lived in the environment and very specific, but I have noticed a steep decline in cicada populations in several sites in NY since spraying began. I do not collect for 1 week after spraying has occurred (the county sends notices prior). Another concern would be collecting and using insects that are major agricultural pests, i.e. tomato hornworms/sphinx moths, especially near agricultural regions.

Thanks again, please keep me posted on your progress,

Frank Indiviglio

Hello,

Frank Indiviglio here.

Thanks for updating me…happy to hear that you were able to identify the toads, and that the canned insects are proving useful to you.

The Zoo Med Bug Napper is a wonderful tool…many of the insects you catch, especially moths and small beetles, will be ideal for the toads. Please write in if you have any questions once you begin using the trap, and let me know how it works out.

American toads hibernate throughout much of their range, but in captivity this is only necessary if you’d like to breed them…even then only a short cooling off period is required. Please be in touch if you would like information as to how to go about this. Otherwise, normal room temperatures are fine…the usual seasonal fluctuations in room temperature and day length will be good for the toads. If you use a terrarium light, you might want to shorten their light cycle to be in tune with the seasons.

American toads will slow down their feeding as temperatures drop, but will continue to feed and digest properly even down to 52 F or so. We don’t see the same problems as often occur in reptiles (especially monitor lizards) which feed at temperatures that are not optimal for digestion and then run into difficulties. My American toads are kept at room temperature….they feed ravenously during the warmer months, nearly every day, but only take a small meal once or twice per week during the winter.

Good luck with all. Best regards, Frank

Hello Joseph,

Frank Indiviglio here, thanks for your insightful comments.

Spadefoot toads do very well in terrariums, but, unlike American toads or other relatives, remain persistently nocturnal. They can be observed with a night-viewing bulb – I’d suggest the Hagen Exo-Terra Moonlight Bulb, as it produces less heat than the infra-red models. They seem to grow slowly – 4 Eastern spadefoots that I received as new metamorphs 2 years ago are now only ½ adult size (they are chilled in winter, mostly dormant). I’m not surprised that they would be stimulated to breed by the presence of a water bowl – on Long Island, NY they lay eggs sporadically throughout spring and summer, after some (but not all) heavy rains. Drying them out and then flooding the tank should do it. They will construct permanent, deep burrows if given the opportunity – a mix of soil and sand, about 1:1, is a good consistency to start with. I’ll write an article soon on a sort of “ant farm” type set up for them that allows you to see the tunnels and resting chamber – please look for it shortly.

As you suspect, much of what we know re: herp nutrition is anecdotal, garnered from hobbyists and zookeepers over the years. There just isn’t enough economic impetus, it seems, for significant research. Most recommendations are based on what has seemed to work over time. Even when research is carried out, there are blanks – for example, despite investigation, we are still not sure why a “goldfish only” diet kills mata mata turtles over time, but we do know that, given a diet composed of several fish species, the turtles will thrive and reproduce.

Large zoos sometimes hire nutritionists, but they are usually mammal-oriented and even the Bronx Zoo, one of the world’s best-funded, abolished its Dept. of Animal Nutrition a few years back. Sometimes we can extrapolate from commercially bred species – this has worked well with pet trade tropical fish and invertebrates, as a good deal of money has been spent in researching the needs of valuable species such as trout, salmon, lobster, clams, etc. The trout research has helped in the development of foods for aquatic herps, i.e. Repto min – not exactly on point, but close.

Dart frogs and other small herps present a unique challenge – leaf litter is amazingly rich in tiny invertebrate species, and these frogs and similar animals likely consume a wide variety of prey…certainly I’ve seen them snap at all sorts of animals when provided with leaf litter in captivity. Yet, due to their size, most are limited to 1-3 readily available food items in captivity…hence supplementation is necessary. Same re terrestrial salamanders – outside of tigers, fire salamanders and a few other large species, variety is difficult to provide. Unlike terrestrial forms, aquatic salamanders usually take pelleted food, and so benefit from the balanced nutrition provided by Repto-min, trout chow and cichlid pellets. It’s also easy to provide variety to certain tortoises, green iguanas and other herbivores – here supplementation helps, but may be less vital.

Wild caught insects definitely reduce the need for supplementation – again based on experience, but holds true re a wide range of species. Nutritional analysis (drawn from studies done for other purposes, but applicable) shows a far wider range of nutrients in wild as opposed to cultured inverts.

There are species that are just “tougher” than others, and it is no coincidence that these are successful colonizers as well. African clawed frogs have lived for decades on leftovers in tropical fish tank…I have seen animals stunted for 2 years suddenly take off and grow normally once put into a good captive situation. One well-studied introduced population lives in the underground water system of a castle in England…I’m not sure what they eat, but recall that several had survived into their teens. America bullfrogs thrive on whatever is available in their introduced habitats – from California to southern Japan, and I’ve seen marine toads eat dog food and salad (those on New Guinea are said to eat plants throughout the dry season)…the standard lab diet for axolotls until recently was beef liver only, and they did fine…red eared sliders sometimes get by on horrendous diets – one visitor the Bx zoo told me she gave her 20 year old animal 3 “mentos” mints and some bread crusts every day!

Of course, many animals in above situations die, and all do better with proper care…point is that some just have different potentials than others.

Thanks again for your interest, best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for your interest in our blog.

It’s quite an accomplishment to take a tadpole through the difficult process of metamorphosis, so you are on the right track, congratulations.

The root of the problem most likely lies in either (1) the diet of the tadpole, (2) the animal’s particular genetics or (3) the diet since transformation to a toad. Of these, I would suspect #3, as the others would have likely shown up earlier.

Often, a calcium deficiency will leave an amphibian unable to contract its muscles, and therefore it will have difficulty in moving about. However, the lack of muscle mass might indicate other types of nutritional problems, or perhaps a deficiency in the tadpole’s diet which took an unusually long time to appear. The problem is not likely due to the fact that the toad was in a tank (I’m assuming you’re concerned about lack of exercise?).

Please let me know the species of toad you have (or where the tadpole was collected if you are unsure of the species), the tadpole’s diet and the diet you have been giving it since transformation. Please also let me know if you have been adding vitamin/mineral supplements to the toad’s food and if so, the brand and how often they were used.

Also, is the animal still alive, and have you noticed any twitching or trembling motions in the limbs?

I’ll be able to give you some specific advice on helping this animal or avoiding the problem in the future once I have a bit more information.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Bill, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for your kind words, most appreciated.

Interesting that you mention this problem, as I have encountered it regularly among American/Fowler’s Toads and, to a lesser extent, gray treefrogs. I can’t say for sure what’s behind it, but I do not believe it is usually injury related…in those animals I’ve kept, it developed spontaneously in several individuals.

I tend to think it is more developmental that dietary also, as it has occurred in both small and large groups of toads that I have maintained at home and for release programs (NYC Parks Dept.). In all cases, I kept close tabs and am fairly sure that the animals ate largely the same types and volumes of food/supplements.

I have not seen it among wild caught adults…only in animals collected as juveniles or hatched in captivity, and the problem has always manifested itself by age 12-18 months (I imagine that if the condition occurs in the wild, the animals so afflicted would not survive for long). Do you know the approximate age of your toads…please let me know if you have a chance.

I currently have 1 American toad with the feeding problem you describe (he is, like others with this condition, lagging in growth despite feeding well). I feed it in a bare-bottomed bucket, away from the others. ..most take well to this, and it saves time in tong-feeding. Crickets shed their rear legs instantly if you pinch the “knee” (no need to pull)…sounds horrible, but seems not to bother them at all, as they set about feeding in this condition right away! This may help your toad to catch its food. Hand-feeding is fine also.

Please be sure to use a varied diet, as described in the article. Earthworms and moths are good as staples, along with well-fed and vitamin-supplemented crickets. The Zoo Med Bug Napper is a fine insect trap…American toads consume a huge variety of species in the wild, and do best on a varied diet in captivity.

Please keep me posted, and let me know if you need any further information.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Bill, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for the update…your observation is in line with mine.

The toad likely transformed the summer before you found it, as they are extremely tiny (about the size of a ladybug) when they leave their natal ponds…but growth rate varies tremendously in different habitats.
Glad the information was useful; if you need anything further re supplements or diet, please let me know.

Good luck, best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Bill, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for your interest in our blog.

The symptoms you describe could very well be related to a calcium deficiency – low calcium levels prevent proper muscle contractions. Sometimes it manifests in several limbs at once, other times as you describe. Often a “twitching” of the toes or limbs (known as “tetany”) will be evident as well…did you notice this? Nerve disease and other problems of which we know relatively little as regards amphibians are always a possibility, but calcium deficiencies are the most commonly seen problem.

The condition is likely not reversible at this point. The only real medical treatment would be an injection of Calcium Gluconate following blood tests. This is sometimes effective but results are highly variable. Without veterinary intervention, increasing dietary calcium may as least prevent a worsening of the condition – being very resilient little beasts, American toads can sometimes get along with rather challenging handicaps (you’ll need to house the animal separately to assure it gets enough food, however).

If you decide upon a vet visit, call ahead to make sure the doctor is experienced with amphibians, or please write back and I’ll try to provide a local reference.

As for supplementation, I suggest you create a high calcium powder by combining Reptivitewith Reptocal at a ratio of approximately 1:1 by volume. Use this on all meals for each of your toads for the time being.

Using wild caught insects in the summer is a great idea. During the winter, try to increase dietary variety through the use of tong-fed canned insects (some, i.e. grasshoppers, are a bit large for toads and will need to be “trimmed”), earthworms, isopods (sow bugs), waxworms and mealworm beetles (please see article below re starting a mealworm colony). Most of these can be purchased…earthworms and sow bugs can easily be kept alive for winter use (please see below). It is very important to feed crickets a nutritious diet – this will go a long way in maintaining your toads’ health (please see below).

The following articles might be helpful:

Product Review: Prepared Diets and Food Supplements for House Crickets (Acheta domestica)
Making the Most of the Mealworm: some tips on enhancing the nutritional value of this pet trade staple
PROVIDING A BALANCED DIET TO REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN PETS – approaches to consider
Terrestrial Isopods (Sowbugs, Pillbugs, Potato Bugs) As Food for Captive Reptiles and Amphibians

Good luck, and please keep me posted and be in touch if you need further information.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Jen, Frank Indiviglio here.

Thanks very much for catching my error…I did indeed intent to suggest a product with a variety of vitamins/minerals along with a calcium source. Reptivite combined with Reptocal would be a good choice.

Thanks again, best regards, Frank Indiviglio

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Bill,

Frank Indiviglio here.

Please note that, re the vitamin/mineral powder, I intended to recommend Reptivite be mixed with Reptocal. Sorry for the mix-up.

Best regards,

Frank Indiviglio

Hello Abbey, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for your interest in our blog.

The symptoms you describe are typical of Septicemia, usually caused by Aeromonas/Pseudomonas bacteria. It is very common in captive amphibians and is termed “red leg” in zoos and labs (red patches often appear beneath the limbs).

Aeromonas/Pseudomonas usually takes hold in terrariums that have not been cleaned properly… often ammonia from the animals’ waste products irritates the skin, causing small lesions which the bacteria colonize. The terrarium may “look clean”, but ammonia is colorless and odorless, and will be present in the liquid portion of the animals’ wastes, even if solid feces are removed. Don’t be too hard on the “terrarium cleaner”, as this is a very common problem that pops up in zoos all the time. Amphibians are very sensitive in this regard.

I suggest that you clean with an amphibian safe product such as R Zilla Terrarium Cleaner in the future, but please write in with some details as to how you house the animals, their species and size, size of the tank, etc., and I’ll send along some more specific advice.

Amphibians are very sensitive to many medications, but Methylene Blue is safe and often effective against Septicemia. Prepare a shallow bath (water about ½ the height of the toad) of Methylene Blue diluted in water at ½ the strength recommended on the bottle (recommendations will be for tropical fish). Leave the toad in the bath for 1 hour each day and repeat for 7 days. If the toad shows no signs of irritation (scratching at skin) you can increase the concentration to ¾ of the “fish strength”. Wear latex gloves – this is good practice when dealing with any sick animal, and the medication stains skin (your toad may be colored blue for awhile as well).

I suggest you begin treatment quickly, as lesions and ulcers may develop soon, after which it is difficult to treat the animal. If untreated, Septicemia is always fatal.

Of course, if you have access to a veterinarian with amphibian experience, by all means make an appointment.

It is also highly contagious to other toads…be sure to separate the animals and check the others carefully. Clean the tank with some bleach or table salt, and rinse very well before re-introducing the toads. Keep the sick toad on damp paper towels with a cave or other area for shelter for now. Change these daily.

I hope this was useful, please keep me posted,

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Blaine, Frank Indiviglio here.

Thanks for your interest in our blog.

I apologize for being so long in responding. The delay was caused by a technical difficulty which has now been resolved.

One thing to watch for is waste products in the soil…ammonia will not be visible – you’ll need to replace the top inch or so of soil every 2-3 weeks. Some sphagnum moss mixed in with the soil will help retain moisture and prevent the soil from packing.

Temperatures should as you suggest be fine year-round. Watch him in mid-summer, however – in the wild toads burrow up to 2 feet below the soil, where it is cooler, at such times. Spraying the terrarium with cool water is useful…American toads are more resilient as regards temperatures than are other amphibians. A cool basement or air-conditioned room works well also.

If you obtain a female and would like to try breeding them, please write back as there are a few useful techniques you can try.

The chirping is a “release call”…females can do this also, but the black throat does suggest that it is a male. The liquid toads release when grabbed is actually water stored to see them through dry periods rather than urine…but it is a good sign that yours “controlled himself”!

Please keep me posted,

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Blaine, Frank Indiviglio here.

Thanks for the feedback…lucky indeed! A 30 gallon tank will provide a great home for your toad.

Thanks for mentioning the increased activity levels. I always advise that secretive animals will show themselves more, not less, when given ample room and places to hide. The feeling of security provided by such frees them to move about more openly, and of course makes for a healthier animal. I have used this technique successfully in zoo exhibits with animals ranging from invertebrates to large mammals…glad you hit upon it.

The breeding season for American toads has passed, so he will not likely call. Usually a winter cooling period (normal household fluctuations are sometimes sufficient) followed by artificial “rains” and, as you suggest, a larger pool, is needed to stimulate calling and reproduction. If you obtain a female and would like to try, please write back.

Please remember to remove the top layer of earth when cleaning (see last comment)…sometimes that’s easy to overlook in a large tank. The toad will often foul his water bowl as well, so be sure to replace the water regularly (use an instant water conditioner to remove chlorine). Spray the tank lightly with de-chlorinated water once or twice each day as well.

Good luck, enjoy and please keep me posted.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Jonathan, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for your interest in our blog.

I applaud your efforts to reintroduce American toads to your neighborhood; very interesting and worthwhile. I’ve been involved with the same, most recently for the NYC Dept. of Parks & Recreation.

Unfortunately, re-establishing any amphibian is a difficult prospect, especially where they have become scarce due to factors which may still be at work. This is not to say it cannot be done…on the grounds of the Bronx Zoo, a radically changed environment actually made it easier for me to re-introduce wood frogs and northern water snakes. Please bear in mind also, however, that each toad breeding pond produces literally millions of toadlets annually, and only a tiny proportion of these survive even under the best of circumstances.

That being said, I advise releasing the toads as soon as they leave the water. “Headstart Programs”, where young animals are held back until reaching a certain size before release, are valuable for sea turtles and other animals, but less important where toads are concerned. Young toads are already well-protected by skin toxins, and in any event their predators consist of only a few highly specialized species.

Raising newly transformed toads in captivity is a daunting prospect…they need huge quantities of live food (chiefly aphids, which are often scarce near developments). Nutrient-supplemented pinhead (newly hatched) crickets may suffice, but even in zoo projects developmental deformities are common.

The small toads will need areas with a fairly thick leaf litter cover…lacking that, they desiccate easily and rarely survive for long. Tiny leaf litter invertebrates form the bulk of their diet as well. They will not be able to find sufficient food in a weeded, relatively bare garden. I suggest collecting leaf litter from a wooded area and distributing it where the toads will be released…this is the most critical step you can take to assure their survival. If possible, also allow some areas to become overgrown with native plants (weeds), as these will draw favored food insects (I know, you probably got the toads to control insects…sorry, never that simple!).

American toads do not need standing water in the wild outside of the breeding season, but a very shallow, easily exited pan of water should be buried flush with the ground for their use in your garden. Boards, rocks and dead wood should be available as additional cover and to attract sow bugs and other prey. The area should be sprayed each evening and, during dry spells, in the morning as well, especially if the leaf litter cover is thin. This can be discontinued once the toads have past their critical first year.

If all does not work out, please do not be discouraged. If you’d like to try again next spring, I can give provide some ideas for a simple method that might allow you to raise a great many toads that will disperse on their own. Sub-adults are sometimes available rather inexpensively as well, although there are other concerns re this route.

Well, probably more than you bargained for…sorry. The companies supplying eggs have a good idea in theory, but may not always properly prepare one for what is ahead.

I’m very interested in efforts such as you are undertaking. Please keep me posted as time permits, and be sure to write in if you have any questions or concerns.

Good luck and please keep me posted.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Jonathan, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks very much for your feedback.

The conditions you describe will assist the toads immensely in becoming established. Other than as regards the numbers issue mentioned earlier, you have every reason to be optimistic.

As both living and breeding habitat, swampy areas are better than streams for toads; another point in your favor.

The most common terrestrial salamander in your area, within that type of habitat, is the red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus, although there could be others. Red backs lay their eggs on land (protected by the female) and hence thrive far from standing water. They are very sensitive to environmental conditions (even abandoning areas subjected to acid rain), and typically share similar habitats and diets with newly transformed American toads, so their presence on your land is quite promising. Please take a look at the linked photos when you have a moment and let me know if this is the species you are seeing (there are 2 local color phases). I’m most interested in keeping track of such things, thanks.

Lawn care companies are a major factor in amphibian disappearance from what otherwise might be tolerable suburban habitat…not only for the obvious reasons, but also due to soil compaction (loss of hibernation/aestivation sites), etc.

Toads in the numbers you describe in the southeast are usually encountered just after the young leave their breeding ponds en masse. I assume they were quite small? (Could have been any of several similar species in TN).

The National Wildlife Federation supports a “Backyard Habitat Certification Program”, in case you might be interested.

Good luck and please keep me posted.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Jonathan, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for the feedback and interesting post.
Glad you’ve confirmed the presence of red-backed salamanders. Most of our native terrestrial salamanders are lungless. Respiration is entirely through the skin, leaving them very vulnerable to slight changes in humidity levels, availability of cool, damp retreats, (skin must be moist for oxygen/carbon dioxide transfer) and to ground/water borne toxins (skin highly permeable, so nearly any substance can enter the body).

In intact NE forest habitats, the weight of those tiny red-backs typically exceeds that of all other vertebrates, including birds and mammals, combined! Despite their size, they and other amphibians play a vital role in ecosystem functioning, a fact only now beginning to register on “habitat managers/mis-managers”.

Re numbers, I just didn’t want to give you false hope…25 could very well work given your situation. Supplementing this first release for awhile will help…there may be easier ways to go about it, so please stay in touch with me on that. You have the potential there for a very good situation, one which could yield some valuable, widely applicable information as well. I work with a number of similar projects, and would appreciate any input you might provide.

Varying rates of development are common even in natural ponds; competition is high, and lagging tadpoles are a vital nutrient source for other creatures. Each female lays 1-2,500 eggs. Tadpole and salamander larvae (for those that lay in water) interactions are surprisingly complex – in vernal ponds, decreasing water levels actually foster physiological changes, with certain larvae (not American toads) suddenly developing long teeth and wider heads. This enables them to consume a high protein diet (their brethren) and transform before the pond dries up. Amazingly, tiger salamander larvae exhibit kin recognition, and preferentially consume non-related animals. A number frog/toad tadpoles are believed capable of this as well.

Leave the metamorphs (newly transformed tadpoles) in the aquarium until they have fully emerged from the water on their own…sometimes development slows down as the tank’s population decreases. As long as water levels remain stable, it’s in their “interest” to stay in the aquatic stage and add size and strength for a time before tackling terrestrial life.

Tadpole nutrition is vital; deficiencies can manifest 4-6 months or so after the tads leave the pond. A balanced diet comprised of pre-soaked kale, Spirulina disks, Tropical Fish Flakes and a bit of pond water (contains diatoms, floating algae) is ideal.

Seeing even the number of adults you describe in Memphis indicates a healthy population. A breeding site within a mile or so is the key to long-term establishment (toads may live in excess of 20 years in the wild, and so can persist long after breeding opportunities have vanished).

Very refreshing to read of your efforts and interest, thank you. Please keep me posted as time permits.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for your interest in our blog.

American toads are suited for temperatures within your planting zone, but establishment in a new environment is difficult at best (a notch below “forget-about-it!). Re-located adults nearly always try to return to their home territory, and would likely wander off. Tadpoles that are reared on site and allowed to colonize the area as they leave the water are more likely to remain nearby, but establishing young toads is an extremely daunting process. Please scroll down the comments on this article and check out my recent correspondence with Jonathan to get an idea of just how complicated this can be.

If you are interested in insect control via an interesting garden inhabitant, setting out praying mantid egg cases would be a simpler and more effective route to follow. Mantid egg cases (oothecum) are available from biological supply houses and commercial greenhouses (please let me know if you need some sources). Mantids would fare well in your region, rarely stray and often establish self-sustaining colonies in new habitats. They are very interesting to observe…adults are large and quite bold, going about their lives in broad daylight and with little regard for observers’ prying eyes.

Good luck and please keep me posted.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Jonathan, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for the update.

The weather we’ve been having is perfect for young toads…desiccation is a threat in some years. Populations of leaf litter invertebrates are high as well.

As a general rule, lettuce does not provide a complete diet for tadpoles; however, your remaining animals will likely transform soon, and the availability of natural prey items should take care of any nutritional problems they may have. Kale, romaine, dandelion etc. are good choices for the future; introducing fish food early on may make a difference as well…even tadpoles can become “picky” in time!

Their camouflage is amazing, isn’t it? Add virulent skin toxins tom the mix and you can see why they live so long once past the delicate stage (and if they have a place to live, as you already know!). Springtails, ants, termites, tiny beetles, newly-hatched millipedes and sowbugs and similarly sized animals make up the bulk of their diets during their first few months of life.

Good luck and please keep me posted.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Jonathan, Frank Indiviglio here. Thanks for the update.

You are taking all the right steps…my compliments. They do get noticeably stronger as time goes on; newly emerged animals are an important food source for several creatures, but after a few days the survivors are better equipped to avoid capture.

Amazing that you saw a previously-released toad, given their size and cryptic coloration. Once on a field research project I spend hours searching for a 17 foot long anaconda in a shallow, room-sized pool of water. I knew the snake was there as we had previously fitted it with a transponder, but its ability to evade capture astonished me. I can’t imagine re-locating a toad metamorph!

Lagging tadpoles are quite common; given the large clutch sizes and the tadpoles’ importance as a food item, such is not unusual. They may actually slow down as the population drops, so as to stay in the pond and put on some size. Dropping the water a bit each day may bring on an increase in their growth rate, as they will need to leave the “pond” before it dries out.

Good luck and please keep me posted on your observations.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Jonathan, Frank Indiviglio here.

Thanks so much for the update…you did a great job, congrats. Very useful for me to hear first hand-accounts of how long the tads take to transform and the toads to grow.

Regarding the one you saw, they are pretty resilient…they will desiccate if forced to remain in the open, but as long as they can retreat underground of below damp leaves to re-hydrate, they will be fine (toads absorb water mainly through a permeable area of skin on the chest, but through the rest of the skin as well, and can even draw moisture from damp soil and leaves).

I look forward to hearing more….and to your next project!

Good luck and please keep me posted.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello Jonathan, Frank Indiviglio here.

Thanks for the feedback. Great news…it’s hard to explain just how difficult it is to find animals in the field. I’ve spent hours trying to find a huge anaconda in a room sized mud hole…and the snake was transmitting signals from a transmitter implanted earlier! So you and your wife are doing quite well indeed. Very nice to hear that your yard is providing a suitable habitat. It will be interesting to track their growth rate as time goes on; I hope you continue to find them.

Re the holly leaves, it’s difficult to say, but I’ve found toads among bramble, dead thistle and other such plants, as well as in empty lots full of broken glass in NYC and NJ, so I believe they will be fine.

Good luck and please keep me posted.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello James, Frank Indiviglio here.

Thanks for your interest in our blog….glad you have good reflexes!

Interesting question….American, Fowlers and related toads do consume earwigs. They seem to take them down fast enough to avoid problems with the pinchers, and their powerful digestive juices make short work of the insects once they have been swallowed.

However, a small toad swallowing a large earwig might run into problems; another concern is that too many at once might create a digestive difficulties – the pinchers pass are largely indigestible, and are passed in the feces. In captivity, changes in hydration, dietary fiber content etc. might affect the toad’s ability to handle these insects (I once lost 2 long term captive frogs in this manner. The insects involved were Japanese beetles). So, clipping the pinches is an excellent idea. During my zoo years, co-workers thought it odd that I removed the claws from crayfish fed to marine toads, amphiumas, bullfrogs and other formidable amphibians, but I garnered a few longevity records and since then have always erred on the side of caution.

Sexual dimorphism, i.e. nuptial pads/throat color, will only be evident upon sexual maturity; young animals of both sexes are identical.

Good luck and please let me know if you need anything further,

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.

Hello James, Frank Indiviglio here.

I’m glad to hear that the information was useful.

A sowbug colony is a very good idea.

Sexing toads is a bit problematical, and complicated by the fact that several species hybridize (i.e. Americans and Woodhouse’s toads) at range overlaps. Females of most species do have spots and black markings, but not always; males’ throats have more of a black patch, but again this varies.

Both sexes do have nodules on the feet; the nuptial pads are actually larger than these nodules, but are only evident on males during the breeding season (spring). Only males call during the spring, but both sexes will utter a “release call” when grasped.

Good luck and please keep me posted.

Best regards, Frank Indiviglio.