That Reptile Blog

Venomous Pythons? – Snakebite Victims Benefit from New Research

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 14 May 2013 15:40:59 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In recent years, researchers have found toxins in a wide array of snakes and lizards formerly believed to be harmless…even the Bearded Dragon is not above suspicion (please see below), but venomous pythons? While working at the Bronx Zoo, I was several times called upon to assist in confiscating snakes that had appeared in the pet trade before we learned of their potentially lethal venom (i.e. Asian Watersnakes, genus Rhabdophis). All evidence of toxicity must be taken seriously…bear in mind that both the Boomslang and Savanna Twig Snake were thought to be harmless until each killed a prominent herpetologist! The recent discovery of toxins in the mucus of certain pythons poses a unique and unexpected concern for snakebite victims.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by CorneliusA

Python Venom

Studies at the University of Queensland have revealed the presence of toxins in the mucus of several python species. Described as “relic venom”, they occur in only trace amounts. In common with many other snakes, pythons may have relied upon venom at some point in their evolutionary history. Although they no longer utilize venom to overcome prey or defend themselves, pythons continue to produce some toxic compounds. While some snakes bear toxins that target specific animals (i.e. Tentacled Snakes, Erpeton tentaculatum, which prey upon fish), python toxins seem to have no use, and pose no danger to people.

The toxin molecules thus far identified in pythons differ from those found in any known venomous snake. Being so chemically unique, they are of great interest to those seeking to develop new chemical compounds and medicines.

Implications for Snakebite Victims

Potential problems arise when a person is bitten by a snake that has not been identified. In such cases, a highly-sensitive venom detection kit is used to determine if toxins are present in the victim. The harmless toxins found in python mucus can trigger a positive response following a python bite, and may result in the unnecessary administration of antivenin (medicines used to counteract snake venom).

In addition to being extremely expensive, antivenin triggers violent allergic reactions in many people. If not treated properly, anaphylactic shock and death can result. Unnecessary treatment also depletes antivenin stocks, which are often difficult to replace. The potential for such problems is greatest in Australia, which is home to a wide variety of both pythons and venomous snakes.

Famous Herpetologists Killed by “Harmless Snakes”

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by TimVickers

Until rather recently, snakes in the family Colubridae (which contains those “typical snakes” with which most people are familiar) were considered relatively harmless. The family’s venomous members are rear-fanged, and it was believed that their seemingly ineffective venom-delivery systems posed little threat to people.

In 1957, however, world-renowned herpetologist Karl P. Schmidt was bitten by a Boomslang (Dispholidus typus) while working at the Chicago Field Museum. At the time, the Boomslang was not believed to be dangerously-venomous. Unconcerned by the fact that a single fang had punctured his thumb, Mr. Schmidt took notes on his symptoms and did not seek medical treatment. He expired the next day. By the early 1970’s, several other deaths had been attributed to this African Colubrid.

Another African rear-fanged snake, the Savanna Twig Snake (Thelotornis capensis), took the life of another prominent herpetologist, Robert Mertens, in 1972. Once considered harmless, this species had been implicated in several deaths by 1972. As any snake enthusiast knows, Mr. Mertens’ work is beyond reproach, but for some reason he decided to hand-feed a captive Twig Snake. He succumbed to the resulting bite after a period of three weeks.

Other Dangerous Colubrid Snakes

Fatalities have also been attributed to bites from the Yamakagashi (Rhabdophis tigrinus), a semi-aquatic Japanese snake. I was involved in confiscations of several related species in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, when they sometimes appeared in US pet stores.

Uploaded to Wikipedia by One dead president

The bites of a number of other “harmless” snakes have caused severe reactions, and all may be capable of causing human fatalities. In fact, the venom of the Blanding’s Treesnake (Boiga blandingi) is as toxic as that of certain cobras. It and related species, such as the Mangrove Snake – a high strung species that I found very difficult to work with in zoo exhibits – should be treated with extreme caution. Other potentially deadly species include Latin America’s Road Guarder (Conophis leneatus) and various Racers in the genera Alsophis and Philodryas.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Treefrog Facts – An Introduction for Pet Keepers

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 13 May 2013 18:59:01 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. The world is home to a mind-boggling assortment of fascinating treefrogs, many of which make wonderful pets. Included among the 1,200+ species that have adapted to life above-ground we find tiny, colorful gems, giants that will feed from one’s hand, gliders that sail through the treetops and a host of other delightfully unique frogs. Some, such as Red-Eyed and White’s Treefrogs, are pet trade staples. New species become available frequently…in recent years, for example, the bizarrely-beautiful Amazon Milk and Mossy Treefrogs have become “must haves” among serious frog enthusiasts.

White’s, Red-Eyed, Lemur, Green, Reed, Waxy Monkey, Mossy, Cuban, Asian Flying, Barking, White-Lipped and dozens of other treefrogs are available in the pet trade. An understanding of their natural history – how they live in the wild – is the first step in learning to provide them with proper care in captivity. This article will introduce you to their habits and habitats. The articles linked below provide specific information on their care and habits of some unusual species. Please be sure to post questions about the care of specific species below.

Range

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Brocken Inaglory

Treefrogs are found on every continent except Antarctica, and have adapted to rainforests, temperate woodlands, arid semi-deserts, human dwellings and many other habitats. I’ve found Gray Treefrogs in the heart of Manhattan and Cuban Treefrogs in downtown Miami, where their favorite “habitat” earned them the now-dated name “Phone Booth Frogs”.

Treefrogs that Break the “Frog Breeding Rules”

Some treefrogs deposit their eggs on leaves over water, while others breed in tree hollows in the forest canopy. It was recently discovered that the tadpoles of India’s Brown Leaping Frog live on tree limbs and eat bark, while those of the Fringe-Limbed Treefrog actually devour their father’s skin (no worries…it grows back!). Please see the articles linked below for more information on these two bizarre creatures.

A Fruit-Eating Treefrog?

Treefrog lifestyles and habits are so diverse that picking a “most unusual species” is an impossible task. But Brazil’s Izecksohn’s Treefrog (Xeohyla truncate) is a good candidate. Of the world’s 6,200+ frog species, only the Marine Toad and the various African Clawed Frogs are known to consume meals that are not alive and moving, and even these oddballs are, like all other frogs, carnivorous. Herpetologists were justifiably shocked to discovered that Izecksohn’s Treefrog eats berries and small fruits, and likely assists in spreading their seeds!

Color Changes

These “chameleons of the frog world” are known for their color-changing abilities. Skin color usually depends more upon temperature (and possibly stress levels) than the color of the frog’s perching spot, but also serves to hide treefrogs from enemies and potential meals.

Treefrogs as Pets

You can expect to see many interesting behaviors from your treefrogs, especially if they are kept in naturalistic terrariums. Waxy Monkey Treefrogs and other nocturnal species can easily be viewed with the help of a red/black reptile night bulb.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Crusier

Many species popular in the pet trade, such as the Red-Eyed Treefrog, are found in the family Hylidae (800+ species). Wallace’s Flying Treefrog (Genus Rhacophoridae) and several others have extra skin flaps that allow them to glide from tree to tree. Barking, Green, Squirrel and Grey Treefrogs, native to the USA, are not often kept but make fine pets. Smaller species reach only 1-3 inches in length, but the Cuban Treefrog, now established in Florida, gets large enough to consume small rodents, snakes, lizards and other frogs.

Handling stresses most frogs, but the always amiable White’s Treefrog will gladly hop onto your hand for a meal. In general, frogs are best handled only when necessary, and then with wet hands, so that the skin’s protective mucus covering is not removed.

With care, some treefrogs will live into their 20’s, and may even reward you with eggs. While many treefrogs are quite hardy, all have specific needs which must be met if they are to thrive. Please post your questions on the care of individual species below.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Brian Gratwicke

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. Thanks, until next time, Frank Indiviglio.

Further Reading

Skin-Feeding Treefrog Tadpoles

Keeping the Asian Flying Treefrog

Land-Dwelling, Bark-Eating Treefrog Tadpoles

Post from: That Reptile Blog

Treefrog Facts – An Introduction for Pet Keepers

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UVB Light: Why Do Reptiles Need It, and Which UVB Bulbs are Best?

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 10 May 2013 15:29:50 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Our understanding of the role that Ultraviolet B Light plays in the lives of reptiles and amphibians has increased greatly over the last few decades, but we still have much to learn about the needs of individual species. A good deal of conflicting information has been published, and opinions differ even among my well-experienced herpetologist colleagues. Today I’ll provide some basic information on UVB light in natural and captive situations, including some tips as to how best to provide it to the animals under your care. I’d like to stress that many variables will affect your individual situation…please post below for specific information.

What is Ultraviolet B (UVB) Light?

The various types of light are characterized by different wavelengths, which are expressed in nanometers (nm). There are three types of Ultraviolet Light, two of which are important to reptile and amphibian husbandry.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Gary2863 at en.wikipedia

UVB Light has a wavelength of 280- 320 nm. Many reptiles synthesize Vitamin D3 (or, more specifically, Pre-Vitamin D/Cholecalciferol) in their skin when exposed to UVB light. The optimum range for Vitamin D3 synthesis in reptiles is 290-315 nm.

Why is UVB Needed?

Certain reptiles seem dependent upon skin-manufactured Vitamin D3, and cannot use D3 contained in the food that they eat. Therefore, vitamin supplements will not meet their needs. Rather, these reptiles must bask in the sun or under UVB-emitting bulbs.

Reptiles need Vitamin D3 in order to absorb and use Calcium. Without adequate supplies of both nutrients, a condition commonly known as Metabolic Bone Disease will develop. Afflicted animals pull Calcium from their bones and replace it with fibrous tissue, and in the process suffer growth deformities and difficulties in locomotion and feeding.

Which Animals Need UVB?

As far as we know, heliothermic reptiles – those that regularly bask in the sun – need UVB in order to produce Vitamin D3 in the skin. Examples include most semi-aquatic turtles and diurnal (day-active) lizards, and all tortoises and crocodilians. Some of these also seem able to use dietary Vitamin D3 to varying extents, but details are lacking and most do poorly if denied UVB exposure.

Snakes, Common Snapping Turtles and other aquatic turtles, and nocturnal lizards (i.e. Leopard Geckos) are able to obtain D3 from their food. Captives generally do fine without UVB light, provided that sufficient D3 is present in the diet. Many if not all can also manufacture D3 in the skin, so UVB bulbs may be useful as “insurance”.

Amphibians utilize dietary D3, and most seem not to require UVB exposure. There is some evidence, however, that low levels may be of use to Poison Frogs and other diurnal species. As field studies have shown that plant cover does not block all UVB, it follows that diurnal amphibians will receive some exposure. On the other hand, the skin and eggs of some amphibians contain chemicals that filter-out UVB. We still have a great deal to learn.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by JJ Harrison

Providing UVB to Pet Reptiles and Amphibians

Natural sunlight is the best source of UVB, but please remember that overheating can occur quickly, and that UVB does not penetrate glass or most plastics. Screen cages offer options in some situations…please see this article for further information.

Florescent UVB Bulbs

In recent tests, the Zoo Med 5.0 and 10.0 Bulbs were found superior to several other models (please see this article). The highest UVB levels occur within 6 inches of the bulb; UVB output declines by 80-90% at 18 inches. Therefore, your pet’s basking site should be within 6-8 inches of the bulb.

Basking sites of varying distances should be provided, as reptiles will adjust their exposure as needed. Some chameleons, for example, modify their basking behavior in accordance with the Vitamin D3 content of their diets (please see article linked below). If a basking site cannot be arranged near the bulb, a shallow “basking enclosure” may be necessary…please post below for further information.

Florescent bulbs stop emitting UVB after a time, but will continue to give off visible light. Therefore, it is important to make a note of your bulb’s useful life. Zoo Med offers a free email “replacement reminder” service.

Florescent UVB Bulbs provide little heat. Situating one near an incandescent basking bulb will ensure that your pet receives UVB exposure each time it seeks warmth.

Halogen and Mercury Vapor UVB Bulbs

Halogen and Mercury Vapor Bulbs generally emit higher levels of UVB than florescent bulbs, and broadcast it over greater distances. They also give-off heat, and so may eliminate the need for an additional heat source.

Full Spectrum Bulbs

Aquarium bulbs labeled as “Full Spectrum” usually emit little if any UVB.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by JamieS93

Which UVB Bulb is Best for my Pet?

Your pet’s natural will determine which UVB bulb to select. Unfortunately, however, few studies have been done on the specific needs of individual reptiles. But experience has provided important lessons…please post below for information on the animals in your collection.

In general, UVB exposure is very important to desert-dwellers, species that bask frequently in the wild, and young, growing individuals.

Low-output UVB bulbs, such as the Zoo Med 2.0 , are designed for use with Arrow Poison Frogs and other amphibians that may benefit from some exposure. If you decide to use a low output UVB, be sure to provide your frogs with shelters that allow them to avoid the light.

Measuring UVB

UVB meters provide an accurate means of measuring your pet’s exposure and will also enable you to keep track of the decline in UVB output as your bulbs age. As reflection from various surfaces, the type of terrarium cover used and other factors can radically affect the amount UVB that reaches your pet, a UVB meter is an essential item for every serious reptile keeper. Please post below for links to suppliers.

What About Ultraviolet A (UVA) Light?

UVA light has a wavelength of 320-400 nanometers. Although perhaps not essential, UVA can greatly improve your pet’s quality of life and breeding potential.

UVA helps regulate circadian rhythms, seasonal changes in activity levels, appetite and other important processes, and may be critical to successful reproduction in certain reptiles. Please see the article linked below for further information.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Providing UVA to Reptiles and Amphibians

Vitamin D and Chameleon Basking Behavior: an Interesting Study

Post from: That Reptile Blog

UVB Light: Why Do Reptiles Need It, and Which UVB Bulbs are Best?

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Africa’s Deadliest Snake? Black Mamba Habits, Venom and Behavior

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 07 May 2013 18:11:37 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As any experienced reptile enthusiast knows, accounts concerning the size and aggressive nature of various snakes are usually highly exaggerated. The Black Mamba, however, comes close to living up to the legends that surround it, and has long been among the most feared of all African snakes. In the course of a lifetime spent working with venomous snakes in the wild and captivity, I’ve come to regard it as deserving of a special degree of respect. Today we’ll take a look at its natural history and behavior.

Description

The Black Mamba is the longest of Africa’s many venomous snakes. It is slender in build and averages 8-9 feet in length, but 14 footers have been recorded. Also very agile and fast-moving, several individuals have been clocked at 12.5 miles per hour. Black Mambas often travel about with the head held high, in a manner similar to that of North America’s Black Racer.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Tad Arensmeier

The “black” part of its common name is derived from the color of mouth’s interior, which is displayed when the animal is threatened (North America’s Cottonmouth behaves in a similar fashion). The body color may be various shades of brown, olive or gray, but is never black.

Venom

Classified with cobras, sea snakes, coral snakes and related species in the family Elapidae, the Black Mamba produces highly toxic venom that acts upon the nervous and circulatory systems. An adult mamba can deliver 100-120 mg of venom in a single bite. Since the lethal dose for humans is a mere 10-15 mg, the severity of a bite cannot be over-estimated. The danger is compounded by the fact that Black Mambas often administer multiple bites in rapid succession.

Before the development of antivenin, Black Mamba bites were almost always fatal. Unfortunately, antivenin is not available to those Africans most at risk. In fact, of the 1.5 million people bitten by venomous snakes annually in Sub-Saharan Africa, only 10% are treated with antivenin; at least 7,000 people die as a result, while another 14,000 suffer limb amputations (please see article linked below for further information). Concerning Black Mamba bites, the fatality rate remains at or near 100% in the many rural areas that are not adequately supplied with antivenin.

Black Mamba venom produces morphine-like effects under certain conditions and is being studied for possible medicinal use.

Threat and Attack Behavior

According to most observers, mambas will flee if able when approached by people. Much to my chagrin, zoo specimens tend to stand their ground, as retreat options are limited! The same may be said of those surprised in buildings or other enclosed areas. Drawn by rodents and nesting birds, Black Mambas are not uncommon in and around buildings in some regions. There are well-documented instances of multiple deaths being caused by single Black Mambas that have fallen from roofs onto people sleeping below.

Disturbed mambas raise the first third of the body off the ground and flare a narrow skin flap that lies along the neck. The mouth is held open, exposing the jet black interior, as the animal hisses and moves its head from side to side.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by deror avi

Range

Two subspecies have been described. Dendroaspis p. polylepis ranges from Ethiopia to South Africa. A widely separated population occurs in parts of tropical West Africa, but the extent of this part of the range is not well-studied. D. p. antinori is confined to Ethiopia, Somalia, northern Kenya and northern Uganda.

Three additional mamba species, all highly arboreal, also occur in Africa – the Eastern Green Mamba (D. angusticeps, please see photo), the Western Green Mamba (D. viridis), and the Jameson’s Mamba (D. jamesoni).

Habitat

The Black Mamba inhabits open forests, wooded savannahs, rocky thorn scrub and the fringes of the Kalahari Desert, but also colonizes farms and villages. Although largely terrestrial, it climbs well and often shelters in tree hollows, thatched roofs and arboreal termite mounds.

There is some evidence that specific home ranges are maintained, and that the same shelter may be utilized for quite long periods of time.

Diet

Birds, mammals (shrews, hyrax, rodents, bats), snakes, and lizards

Activity

In most regions, Black Mambas are diurnal, but seek shelter during the hottest part of the day. There is evidence of nocturnal and crepuscular activity patterns among some populations as well.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Gerhardt Nieuwoudt

Reproduction

Males wrestle for dominance during the mating season (please see photo). Females deposit 6-17 eggs in mammal burrows, termite mounds, tree hollows and similar sites. The hatchlings average 15-24 inches in length. Black Mambas grow very quickly, with well-fed individuals reportedly reaching a length of 6 feet within their first year of life.

Status of Wild Populations

Detailed studies are lacking, but Black Mambas appear to adapt well to human presence. Agricultural expansion has increased the likelihood of mamba encounters and bites. Given the danger that this species poses to people, it is likely that efforts to eliminate it from developed areas will continue.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Venomous Snakebite: My Experiences and Global Study Results

King Cobra Care and Natural History

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Africa’s Deadliest Snake? Black Mamba Habits, Venom and Behavior

The post Africa’s Deadliest Snake? Black Mamba Habits, Venom and Behavior appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 03 May 2013 15:03:28 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As a small boy, I devoured the books of Messrs.’ Ditmars, Kauffeld, Whittaker, Sanderson and others who sought out snakes in their natural habitats. The formidable Black Mamba, (Dendroaspis polylepis), accorded respect by all, was given a special place of honor by legendary snake man C.J.P. Ionides in Mambas and Maneaters. Although I was eager to expand my snake hunting experiences, these authors convinced me that this longest of Africa’s venomous snakes was better observed than handled. Fate intervened, however, and I wound up working closely with what has been described as “Africa’s deadliest snake”. Accounts of the recent escape of a Black Mamba from the Pretoria Zoo brought an experience of my own back to mind…

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Tad Arensmeier

Handling Mambas and Cobras

Zoo-based reptile keepers such as I handle thousands of venomous snakes over the course of their careers. A snake hook generally fits the bill for routine tasks. The Black Mamba, King Cobra and several related species, however, present special challenges, especially when they reach full size. Quick, high-strung, and seemingly more alert and intelligent than others, many Elapids (cobras, mambas and their relatives) are difficult to move via snake hooks….all old reptile keepers have their stories. You can read about my adventures with an escaped King Cobra in this article.

I was fortunate in having had the benefit of working with several older, well- experienced keepers, and had no illusions about “proving” myself when it came to cobras and mambas. I feel that “discretion is the better part of valor” where they are concerned, a belief confirmed by observations made in the course of responding to many snakebite emergencies over the years. Whenever possible, I relied upon shift cages or other “tricks” (please see article below) when I needed to move a mamba.

You Want Me to Do What with the Black Mamba?!

But there came I time when, as consultant for the renovation of the Staten Island Zoo’s reptile house, I was called upon to capture a large Black Mamba and ready it for shipment to another zoo. The snake, a large adult, had not been on a snake hook or otherwise manipulated in years. A shift cage was attached to its exhibit, and the exhibit door was not opened for cleaning unless the snake was locked away in the shift.

Snakes in transit are confined in pillow cases or similar cloth bags, which are tied tightly and then placed into a second bag. Generally a straightforward task… but not with an aggressive, 9 foot-long snake that can flip off a snake hook or exit a bag in the blink of an eye!

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Bill Love / Blue Chameleon Ventures / Reptile & Amphibian Photo Gallery

How to Bag a Black Mamba

After some consideration, I decided to lure rather than force the mamba into a bag. I found a bag of the right size and secured it with duct tape to the opening that led from the exhibit into the shift cage. I then acclimated the snake to feeding within the bag. Black Mambas have fast metabolisms by snake standards, and generally consume quite a bit more food than similarly-sized individuals of other species…hatchlings have been known to reach 6 feet in length within by within one year. Hunger can, therefore, sometimes be used to manipulate them.

You can bet I kept our Black Mamba very hungry prior to shipment! This is standard practice when shipping any snake, as stress can induce regurgitation and related problems, but to be honest I was far more concerned with my stress levels than the mamba’s! When it came time to confine the snake, I rubbed the inside of the bag with a mouse and opened the shift door. Happily, the mamba shot it without hesitation.

I was careful to secure the bag’s opening with a long handled tong, after which I lifted the now violently-moving package into a large plastic garbage can. As is done when packing all snakes, I pulled the neck and 2 feet or so of the bag out of the can, and then placed the can’s lid securely on top. Thus, the snake was confined in that part of the bag which remained within the can, and the lid prevented it from reaching the bag’s neck (or my hand). I could now safely tie the bag by hand, and then secure it further with a cable tie.

I think that some of my younger co-workers would have preferred a more dramatic capture, but I was quite pleased with myself (as was the zoo’s curator and the doctor who had been placed on notice at the local hospital!).

Natural History

Occasionally approaching 14 feet in length, the Black Mamba is the longest of Africa’s venomous snakes, and its venom is among the most toxic to be found on the continent. Add to this a wide range, the ability to colonize farms and villages, and a propensity to bite multiple times in quick succession when threatened, and it becomes clear why this a creature of much concern and deserving of detailed study. Yet it remains difficult to separate mamba fact from fiction. I’ll cover Black Mamba lore and natural history in the near future.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Snake Hunting with Romulus Whittaker

Snake Escapes: Recapturing Cobras and Others

Post from: That Reptile Blog

Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes

The post Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

“My Emperor Scorpion Has Babies…What Should I Do”?

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 30 Apr 2013 19:02:13 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Emperor Scorpions give birth to live young, and most hobbyists are thrilled when this happens.However, scorpion reproduction breaks many of the “rules” that apply to other pets.For example, a female that has been alone for 14 months may one day be found with 30 tiny white youngsters, or “scorplings”, on her back!I’ve written about scorpion breeding and care in detail elsewhere (please see links below), but thought that an article describing what steps one should take when first discovering youngsters would be useful…especially if your female turns out to be a less-than-perfect mom and begins eating her new creations!Please also be sure to post your questions and concerns below, as scorpion births often take owners by surprise, and I’ll be sure to get right back to you.

Predicting Scorpion Births

In the wild, some Emperor Scorpion populations breed seasonally, while others may reproduce year-round.Captives can mate and give birth during any month of the year. Further complicating our ability to predict births is the fact that females seem able to both store sperm and delay giving birth if conditions are not ideal.Environmental factors such as temperature and stress may also affect the youngsters’ development.Even under ideal conditions, the gestation period may exceed 1 year, although a range of 7 to 10 months is more common.

Most female Emperor Scorpions will cease feeding approximately one week before giving birth, and they usually become quite heavy as the young grow.When such females are viewed from above, the carapace segments will be separated by spaces – not abutting one another, as is usual (however, overfed scorpions of either sex may also appear gravid).

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Fusion121

Housing the Female and Her Young

Although wild Emperor Scorpions continue to live with colony members after giving birth, captive mothers often become aggressive towards tank-mates. Therefore, it is best to remove all other scorpions from the terrarium once the youngsters appear.This can be troublesome if you are keeping a large group, but relocating the female is not advisable as this may stress her to the point of consuming her brood.I’ve had females raise their young in group situations in large zoo exhibits, but there were some losses.

The Importance of Shelters

Ideally, the female will have a burrow in which to retreat.This will provide the security she needs while carrying her young. In bare terrariums, the likelihood of cannibalism increases.

In order to be prepared for unexpected births, you should provide your scorpions with a substrate that allows for the creation of deep burrows.Tunnel and burrow walls will remain intact in a slightly moist mix of peat moss, sand, top soil and Eco Earth.If your female gives birth in a tank that is not set-up as described, try adding a commercial cave stocked with moist sphagnum moss.If the substrate is deep enough, bury the cave so that the opening is flush with the surface.

High humidity and moist retreats are especially important for young scorpions, as, unlike the adults, they are prone to desiccation.In especially dry locales, a small reptile fogger may be useful.

Cannibalism

Newborn scorpions are white in color, and remain on their mother’s back until their first molt (photo of female with young is of an unrelated species).If the female is disturbed during this time, she will make very fast defensive movements.Scorplings that are dislodged during such times may quickly be grabbed and eaten.

Therefore, do as little work in the terrarium as possible, limit activity in the area, and resist the impulse to check on your charges.To avoid stings, a long handled forceps should always be used when working in scorpion terrariums; this is especially important when females with young are present. Black or red nocturnal viewing bulbs offer the best way to observe your pet’s night-time activities, as the light emitted is not sensed by scorpions.

Feed your female scorpion heavily after she gives birth, as most will be very hungry and therefore more likely to “snack” on their young.Be sure to remove uneaten crickets and roaches promptly, as they will consume newborn scorpions if given the opportunity.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Mike Baird

“Bad Moms”

Some females feed upon their young even if conditions are ideal.Most will “sample” one or two of their brood, but if your scorpion seems bent on eliminating her entire clutch, then your best to remove her and rear them yourself.Please post below for further information on separating and caring for young Emperor Scorpions.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook.Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Emperor Scorpions in the Wild and Captivity

Breeding Emperor Scorpions

Post from: That Reptile Blog

“My Emperor Scorpion Has Babies…What Should I Do”?

The post “My Emperor Scorpion Has Babies…What Should I Do”? appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

The Best Diet for Uromastyx Lizards – a Herpetologist’s Thoughts

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 25 Apr 2013 15:33:34 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Bulldog-like faces, calm dispositions, and fascinating behaviors – not to mention the stunning colors of many species – place Uromastyx Lizards high on the “must have” lists of serious lizard fans and zoos alike. Also known as Dab Lizards or Spiny-Tailed Mastiguerres, North African and Egyptian Uromastyx Lizards (Uromastyx acanthinura and U. aegypticus) first arrived on the US pet scene in the early 1990’s. I’d had some prior experience with these and several others through my work with the Bronx Zoo, but our ability to successfully keep and breed them was limited. Today we have learned much about their unique nutritional requirements, and several of the 15 described species are regularly bred by hobbyists. The following information regarding the best diet for Uromastyx may be applied to Egyptian, Indian, Ornate, Sudanese, Mali, Moroccan and most other varieties; please post below for detailed advice on individual species.

Don’t “Kill them with Kindness”!

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Nadja Pöllath

Uromastyx Lizards dwell in harsh habitats, and have evolved to consume a diet that is high in fiber and relatively low in nutrients. In the wild, they feed mainly upon tough grasses and herbaceous plants. A diet that is too rich (i.e. high in fruit or insects) can kill them as quickly as will one lacking essential nutrients. As I’ve learned from caring for animals as diverse as giant anteaters and proboscis monkeys, one must feed specialists carefully…they will not thrive on a diet that might be perfect for closely-related species from different habitats.

The Ideal Diet

A wide variety of nutritious plants should form the bulk of the diet of all Uromastyx species. Approximately 80% of their food intake should be a mix of collared, mustard and turnip greens, kale, endive, escarole, cilantro, dandelion, bok choy, romaine and other dark green produce, along with a small amount of squash and green beans. Spine-free prickly pear cactus (Opuntia) pads, sold for human consumption, should be offered when available. Avoid cabbage and spinach, and limit broccoli, as these may react with some nutrients in a way that renders them unavailable to the lizards. Grassland Tortoise Pellets, dried split peas, dried lentils and other beans, almonds and other nuts, and parakeet seed mix should be added to the salad. Adults can be fed 5-7 times weekly, juveniles daily.

Flowers, Grasses and Other Plants

Flowers such as hibiscus, honeysuckle, Rose of Sharon, rose and dandelion, and various clovers, weeds, grasses and other native plants, are also readily accepted, and can provide important dietary variety; please post below for information on suitable wild plants and toxic species.

Insects

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Mickey Samuni-Blank

Insects should be used only as a rare treat, or perhaps to induce a reluctant feeder or habituate a shy individual to your presence. Any insects that are offered should be small in size, as Uromastyx Lizards seem especially prone to intestinal blockages. Although all young and many adult Uromastyx Lizards favor insects, their frequent inclusion in the diet has been linked to health problems. Hopefully we will learn more in time; until then, please post your thoughts and observations below.

Supplements

All meals should be powdered with Zoo Med ReptiCalcium or a similar product. A vitamin supplement such as ReptiVite should be provided to well-nourished individuals once weekly.

Water

Highly adapted to arid habitats, properly-fed Uromastyx Lizards usually obtain sufficient water from their diet. As a safety measure, the terrarium should be misted twice daily, so that water may be lapped from rocks and other surfaces. A shallow bowl can be offered as well, but it should be removed after an hour or so to reduce spillage. Newly-imported and poorly-nourished individuals are prone to dehydration; please post below for further information.

Uploaded to Wikipedia by en:User:Webwheeler

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible. Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio.

Odd and Giant Snake Meals – Sticks, Antelopes, People, Siamese Cats…

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 24 Apr 2013 20:28:24 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Many interesting reptile field research reports are published in professional journals that are not available online to non-subscribers. Fortunately, I’ve long had access to many of my favorites, including Copeia, Herpetologica, and Herpetological Review. From time to time I like to provide summaries of interesting reports that I have read and enjoyed. Today’s article covers some very unique snake feeding observations drawn from recent publications and my own experiences in the field and among zoo animals. Please be sure to post your own observations below, thanks.

When Prey Exceeds Predator’s Mass

The largest snake meal that I’ve personally witnessed was a 60 pound White-Tailed Deer taken by a 17 foot-long, 215 pound Green Anaconda, Eunectes murinus, in Venezuela. A 130 pound Impala consumed by an African Rock Python, Python sebae, is the largest fairly reliable meal I’ve been able to document (please see article linked below).

But in terms of the ratio of prey size to snake size, a Red Duiker (small antelope) eaten by a Gaboon Viper, Bitis gabonica, beats most accounts hands down. The antelope outweighed the snake by 4%! In addition to being the largest meal recorded for this species, this is also the first record of an ungulate being taken by a Gaboon Viper in South Africa. I’ve worked with Gaboon Vipers in zoos, and know how well-adapted they are for taking large, infrequent meals, but I was still quite surprised by this observation.

The Oddest Snake Meal – a Stick!

Certain snakes specialize on frog eggs, centipedes, snails, eels, crayfish and other “unusual” foods. On the other hand, I have observed Green Anacondas eating other Anacondas, Spectacled Caiman, birds, fish, Capybara, turtles and deer…one even grabbed a friend of mine in what surely was a feeding and not a defensive response (please see this article).

But the most unusual snake meal I’ve read of in recent years was enjoyed by a Coachwhip Snake in Arizona. Researchers observed the animal biting off a small section of a tree branch. This was dropped, but it soon broke off another and swallowed it! The observers noted that the branch resembled a Fence Lizard, and that Australian Brown Snakes will attack motionless, unscented skink models. So appearance may explain this odd behavior. Also, it’s possible that the scent of an animal could have been on the branch in question, but still…

Specialists Breaking the Rules

Two species long believed to be strict dietary specialists recently revealed that they are open to experimentation. The brilliantly-colored Northern Scarlet Snake, Cemophora coccinea, is rarely kept by hobbyists or zoos because of its preferred diet of lizard and snake eggs. A specimen in South Carolina, however, consumed a young, dead Corn Snake with which it had been temporarily confined.

The Southern Hognosed Snake, Heterodon simus, is widely “known” to be a confirmed amphibian specialist. In North Carolina, however, a field researcher recorded that a large Ox Beetle grub was consumed by a recently collected adult.

The Western Hognosed Snake, Heterodon nascicus, is known to take a wider range of prey than does its southern and eastern cousins. It favors bird and reptile eggs, but has only been observed hunting on the ground. But a herpetologist working in Arizona recently found an adult consuming the contents of a Lark Sparrow nest located 5 feet above-ground. Considering that this species is fairly common and well-studied, the observer was surprised that this behavior had not previously been reported.

Rarely Documented Prey Items

Although possibly more common than has been recorded, considering the natural history of the species involved, two other notes caught my attention recently. An Eyelash Viper, Bothriechis schlegelii, in Nicaragua was seen to consume a bat, only the third time this has been observed. In Argentina, a Yellow Anaconda, Eunectes notaeus, regurgitated another Yellow Anaconda (and a Cormorant), the first instance of cannibalism reported for this species.

“Picky Eaters”: Muskrats, Eels and other demands

Although Green Anacondas take a wider range of prey than most snakes, many captives are notoriously choosy. One adult under my care at the Bronx Zoo would eat nothing but Muskrats (which I trapped in conjunction with my side job), while another refused lab rats but relished wild-caught Norway Rats (the rats are of the same species).

Yellow-bellied Seasnakes, Pelamis platura, are recorded as taking a very large number of fish species, but several at the Bronx Zoo refused all manner of marine fishes (provided by the NY Aquarium)…only American Eels would do.

People and their Pets

Humans, as far as we know, rarely fall prey to large constrictors. However, an amazing study in the Philippines has documented an unprecedented number of attacks on humans, including 6 fatalities, by Reticulated Pythons. Please see this article for details.

The most audacious feeding incident I’ve uncovered is that of a Siamese cat snatched by a Reticulated Python – from the palace of a former king of Thailand! A friend reported that while he was employed at the Singapore Zoo, a free-ranging Reticulated Python consumed one of his Cape Hunting Dogs. Please see the article linked below for further details.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

The Best Foods for Poison Frogs, Mantellas and Other Tiny Amphibians

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 18 Apr 2013 17:13:01 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. I began working with Poison Frogs and Mantellas in zoos just as the secrets to longevity and breeding were being discovered. Today, captive-bred animals are almost mainstream. This is wonderful, but there is a downside – they are sometimes viewed as “simple to keep”. But while these tiny gems can be surprisingly hardy, they will not thrive long-term if their unique nutritional requirements are not met. Friends of mine who have broken new ground with Poison Frogs – in one case years before most zoos did – have always expended a great deal of effort on providing a varied diet. The following information is drawn from their and my own experiences over several decades, and may also be applied to the care of many other small and newly-transformed amphibians.

General Considerations

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Marcel Burkhard

Although we do not know the exact nutritional needs of any species, certain principles have become evident. Chief among these is that a highly-varied diet is essential. Crickets alone, even if powdered with supplements, are not an adequate diet. There are exceptions, but nearly every study of free-living amphibians reveals that a surprising range of prey species are consumed.

Comparatively large species, such as the Golden Poison Frog (Phyllobates terribilis), are able to consume a wider range of food items than their tiny relatives, and hence may be a better choice for most hobbyists. The largest Mantellas reach a mere 1 ½ inches in length, so providing for them can be quite a challenge.

Poison and Mantella Frogs have large appetites and should be fed every day or two. One Brown Mantella was observed to eat 53 ants in 30 minutes!

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Shipher Wu

The Ideal Diet

Always try to offer your frogs as many of the following food items as possible.

Moths, Gnats and other Small Flying Insects

These can be easily collected near outdoor lights. Zoo Med’s Bug Napper, which traps live insects drawn to light, is indispensable to serious frog-keepers. I use it at home, and relied upon similar models during my zoo career (please see photo).

Leaf Litter Invertebrates

Ants, slugs, millipedes, sow bugs, mites, springtails, bristletails, termites and similar creatures form the bulk of the natural diets of most small ground-dwelling frogs. And whether you live in the countryside or the heart of NYC, a free supply is as close as the nearest batch of decaying leaves. Please see this article for further information.

Simple pitfall traps can also be used to harvest a variety of small invertebrates.

Flightless Fruit Flies

Cultures are available commercially, and once you develop a system you can assure a year-round supply.

Aphids

Aphids are tiny insects that gather in huge groups on the stems of native and garden plants. In many habitats, hundreds can be collected in a few minutes by merely snipping off an infested stem. As a child, I fed aphids to a wide variety of creatures, including American Toad and Gray Treefrog metamorphs, Red-Backed Salamanders and hatchling Chinese Mantids, and continued to use them throughout my zoo career. They are soft-bodied (an important consideration for some frogs), and seem to be a nutritious food item.

Springtails

These primitive insects are an excellent food source and can be bred year-round (cultures available commercially) or collected below leaf litter just about anywhere. They are easy to nutrient-load, feeding ravenously upon fish flakes and soaked Reptomin.

Termites

Termites are valuable foods for Poison Frogs, and are likely consumed by most in the wild. Termites can easily be collected from colonies established in dead logs. A termite trap, baited with damp cardboard, is simple to construct and may yield thousands of insects each season. Please see the article linked below.

Flour Beetle Larvae

I was first introduced to flour beetles some 20 years ago by Bob Holland, a friend who was setting Poison Frog longevity records before most zoos kept any at all. Back then, we collected our stock from old boxes of dog biscuits. Today, two species easy-to-breed insects are available commercially. Please see the article linked below for further information.

Ants

Experimentation is required where ants are concerned, as some species are rejected and others are adept at repelling predators. But the effort is worthwhile, as ants feature heavily in the diets of nearly all small frogs. Most are easy to trap. During my years at the Bronx Zoo, nuptial flights of breeding males and females would erupt regularly from a colony beneath the Reptile House. I’d gather as many as possible, and delighted in seeing the enthusiastic responses of creatures ranging from Spring Peepers to Pangolins.

“Meadow Plankton”

This is a term used by entomologists to describe the myriads of tiny invertebrates that can be gathered by sweeping through tall grass with a net. Beating bushes so that insects fall onto a sheet spread below is equally rewarding (and great fun…I’ve collected some fascinating creatures in these ways!). Tiny grasshoppers, tree crickets, caterpillars, leafhoppers and innumerable others can contribute greatly to the health of your animals.

It takes some time to properly master this technique, and there are some precautions that must be taken (recognizing dangerous species, pesticide concerns) Please see this article and post your questions below.

Praying Mantid Nymphs

Hatchling mantids are an excellent food for tiny amphibians of all kinds. Egg cases may be collected or purchased from garden supply dealers. Please see this article to learn more about this under-utilized food.

Pinhead and 10 day-old Crickets

Crickets should themselves properly fed. Please see this article for information on their husbandry and use.

Supplements

All commercial insects (crickets, fruit flies) should be powdered with Tetra ReptoCal or Zoo Med ReptiCalcium. A vitamin/mineral supplement such as ReptiVite with D3 should be used 2-3 times weekly. I do not supplement wild-caught insects.

Colleagues in various zoos are experimenting with other supplements; I’ll stay alert for developments. In the meantime, please post your own experiences below.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Building a Termite Trap

Breeding Flour Beetles

Post from: That Reptile Blog

The Best Foods for Poison Frogs, Mantellas and Other Tiny Amphibians

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The Best Humidity Gauges for Reptile, Amphibian and Invert Habitats

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 15 Apr 2013 15:06:45 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Like most lifelong animal keepers, I consider myself to be a fairly good judge of humidity levels in the home terrariums and zoo exhibits under my care. But when I began working in new buildings equipped with state-of-the-art hygrometers (humidity gauges), I quickly realized that I had much to learn. I was especially surprised to discover how widely humidity levels can vary within even a small enclosure, and how this can affect every facet of an animal’s life. The accurate, easy-to-use humidity gauges now available offer us the chance to provide better care to our charges and perhaps to uncover important new details about their lives.

Recent Innovations in Humidity Monitoring

Over the past several decades, hobbyists and zoos have greatly expanded the number of rare and delicate species that can be kept and bred in captivity. Many of these successes have been due to an increased understanding of the roles that UVB, temperature, diet and other such factors play in their lives.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Luc Viatour

Humidity levels have also been taken into account by serious animal owners, but this topic has been given less attention than others. This is partially because many reptiles, and some amphibians and invertebrates, can meet their needs by soaking in a water bowl or retreating to a moist shelter. But the real obstacle has been the unavailability of affordable hygrometers designed for use with animals. Happily, humidity gauges that fit just about every terrarium and budget are now available, and all are very simple to use (since I can do it!).

Areas of Special Concern

While all animals are to some degree affected by humidity levels, certain captives require closer monitoring than others. Humidity levels are crucial when most species are shedding/molting. Scorpions, centipedes, tarantulas, hermit crabs, mantids and other invertebrates easily become, as we say, “stuck in the molt” when humidity levels are too low. While we can sometimes assist them in this situation, most die.

Reptiles and amphibians usually survive dry molts, but problems ranging from fungal/bacterial infections beneath old skin to digit loss and retained eye caps may result. Poison frogs and other small, highly active amphibians, and those that remain in the open when resting, as do most treefrogs, are especially at risk from overly-dry conditions. Please see the articles below for further information on herp and invertebrate shedding concerns.

Humidity plays an important role in activity levels, cutaneous respiration, reproduction, immune system function, skin health and a wide variety of other processes. With so many amphibians in dire need of captive breeding these days, I believe it is critical that we begin to record our observations concerning humidity levels. Please consider using a hygrometer and relaying your thoughts by posting below; I’ll be sure to pass the information along, thanks.

The Zilla Humidity and Temperature Digital Gauge

This is my favorite gauge for average to large terrariums. The separate probes for temperature and humidity attach to the glass via suction cups, allowing for easy movement so that various areas of the terrarium (cave, basking site, etc.) can be monitored. I find the thin, 59 inch-long wires connected to the probes to be especially valuable. In smaller enclosures, the wires can be rolled up and secured with a twist-tie. The unit itself measures only 4 x 1 ½ inches, and is quite unobtrusive. It remains outside the terrarium, and features a built-in stand and a notch for wall mounting.

The Zilla Gauge monitors a humidity range of 10-99% and temperatures from -58 F to 158 F (if your pet requires conditions outside of those ranges, it likely belongs in a zoo!). “Comfort”, “Wet” and “Dry” messages are displayed at certain readings. While these are general in nature and will not apply to all species, many hobbyists find them useful. Temperatures can be displayed in either Fahrenheit or Celsius.

The unit also features an alarm, which can function as a reminder to check the terrarium or administer medications (if you sleep as lightly as I, it might also serve as an alarm clock!).

The Zoo Med Dual Humidity Gauge and Thermometer

Although marketed for use with hermit crabs, this small (3” x 1 ½”) gauge is ideal for small to moderately-sized terrariums housing most any species. Despite being quite inexpensive, it is accurate and stands up well to both damp and hot conditions.

The temperature and humidity levels are displayed side-by-side on brightly-colored, easy-to-read dials. “Dry”, “Optimum” and “Wet” ranges (for hermit crabs) are shown in different colors. The gauge attaches to glass with a sturdy Velcro strip.

Being colorful and simple to read, the Zoo Med Gauge is a great way to introduce youngsters to the concept of monitoring and recording environmental conditions. I plan to present several to my 5-year old nephew (shown here examining his “pet” mosquito larvae, much to his mom’s chagrin!) for use with his fire salamanders and domino roaches.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Shedding Problems and Other Scorpion Ailments

Leopard Gecko Shedding Concerns

Post from: That Reptile Blog

The Best Humidity Gauges for Reptile, Amphibian and Invert Habitats

The post The Best Humidity Gauges for Reptile, Amphibian and Invert Habitats appeared first on That Reptile Blog.