That Reptile Blog » Venomous Snakes

Venomous Pythons? – Snakebite Victims Benefit from New Research

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 14 May 2013 15:40:59 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In recent years, researchers have found toxins in a wide array of snakes and lizards formerly believed to be harmless…even the Bearded Dragon is not above suspicion (please see below), but venomous pythons? While working at the Bronx Zoo, I was several times called upon to assist in confiscating snakes that had appeared in the pet trade before we learned of their potentially lethal venom (i.e. Asian Watersnakes, genus Rhabdophis). All evidence of toxicity must be taken seriously…bear in mind that both the Boomslang and Savanna Twig Snake were thought to be harmless until each killed a prominent herpetologist! The recent discovery of toxins in the mucus of certain pythons poses a unique and unexpected concern for snakebite victims.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by CorneliusA

Python Venom

Studies at the University of Queensland have revealed the presence of toxins in the mucus of several python species. Described as “relic venom”, they occur in only trace amounts. In common with many other snakes, pythons may have relied upon venom at some point in their evolutionary history. Although they no longer utilize venom to overcome prey or defend themselves, pythons continue to produce some toxic compounds. While some snakes bear toxins that target specific animals (i.e. Tentacled Snakes, Erpeton tentaculatum, which prey upon fish), python toxins seem to have no use, and pose no danger to people.

The toxin molecules thus far identified in pythons differ from those found in any known venomous snake. Being so chemically unique, they are of great interest to those seeking to develop new chemical compounds and medicines.

Implications for Snakebite Victims

Potential problems arise when a person is bitten by a snake that has not been identified. In such cases, a highly-sensitive venom detection kit is used to determine if toxins are present in the victim. The harmless toxins found in python mucus can trigger a positive response following a python bite, and may result in the unnecessary administration of antivenin (medicines used to counteract snake venom).

In addition to being extremely expensive, antivenin triggers violent allergic reactions in many people. If not treated properly, anaphylactic shock and death can result. Unnecessary treatment also depletes antivenin stocks, which are often difficult to replace. The potential for such problems is greatest in Australia, which is home to a wide variety of both pythons and venomous snakes.

Famous Herpetologists Killed by “Harmless Snakes”

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by TimVickers

Until rather recently, snakes in the family Colubridae (which contains those “typical snakes” with which most people are familiar) were considered relatively harmless. The family’s venomous members are rear-fanged, and it was believed that their seemingly ineffective venom-delivery systems posed little threat to people.

In 1957, however, world-renowned herpetologist Karl P. Schmidt was bitten by a Boomslang (Dispholidus typus) while working at the Chicago Field Museum. At the time, the Boomslang was not believed to be dangerously-venomous. Unconcerned by the fact that a single fang had punctured his thumb, Mr. Schmidt took notes on his symptoms and did not seek medical treatment. He expired the next day. By the early 1970’s, several other deaths had been attributed to this African Colubrid.

Another African rear-fanged snake, the Savanna Twig Snake (Thelotornis capensis), took the life of another prominent herpetologist, Robert Mertens, in 1972. Once considered harmless, this species had been implicated in several deaths by 1972. As any snake enthusiast knows, Mr. Mertens’ work is beyond reproach, but for some reason he decided to hand-feed a captive Twig Snake. He succumbed to the resulting bite after a period of three weeks.

Other Dangerous Colubrid Snakes

Fatalities have also been attributed to bites from the Yamakagashi (Rhabdophis tigrinus), a semi-aquatic Japanese snake. I was involved in confiscations of several related species in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, when they sometimes appeared in US pet stores.

Uploaded to Wikipedia by One dead president

The bites of a number of other “harmless” snakes have caused severe reactions, and all may be capable of causing human fatalities. In fact, the venom of the Blanding’s Treesnake (Boiga blandingi) is as toxic as that of certain cobras. It and related species, such as the Mangrove Snake – a high strung species that I found very difficult to work with in zoo exhibits – should be treated with extreme caution. Other potentially deadly species include Latin America’s Road Guarder (Conophis leneatus) and various Racers in the genera Alsophis and Philodryas.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Africa’s Deadliest Snake? Black Mamba Habits, Venom and Behavior

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 07 May 2013 18:11:37 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As any experienced reptile enthusiast knows, accounts concerning the size and aggressive nature of various snakes are usually highly exaggerated. The Black Mamba, however, comes close to living up to the legends that surround it, and has long been among the most feared of all African snakes. In the course of a lifetime spent working with venomous snakes in the wild and captivity, I’ve come to regard it as deserving of a special degree of respect. Today we’ll take a look at its natural history and behavior.

Description

The Black Mamba is the longest of Africa’s many venomous snakes. It is slender in build and averages 8-9 feet in length, but 14 footers have been recorded. Also very agile and fast-moving, several individuals have been clocked at 12.5 miles per hour. Black Mambas often travel about with the head held high, in a manner similar to that of North America’s Black Racer.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Tad Arensmeier

The “black” part of its common name is derived from the color of mouth’s interior, which is displayed when the animal is threatened (North America’s Cottonmouth behaves in a similar fashion). The body color may be various shades of brown, olive or gray, but is never black.

Venom

Classified with cobras, sea snakes, coral snakes and related species in the family Elapidae, the Black Mamba produces highly toxic venom that acts upon the nervous and circulatory systems. An adult mamba can deliver 100-120 mg of venom in a single bite. Since the lethal dose for humans is a mere 10-15 mg, the severity of a bite cannot be over-estimated. The danger is compounded by the fact that Black Mambas often administer multiple bites in rapid succession.

Before the development of antivenin, Black Mamba bites were almost always fatal. Unfortunately, antivenin is not available to those Africans most at risk. In fact, of the 1.5 million people bitten by venomous snakes annually in Sub-Saharan Africa, only 10% are treated with antivenin; at least 7,000 people die as a result, while another 14,000 suffer limb amputations (please see article linked below for further information). Concerning Black Mamba bites, the fatality rate remains at or near 100% in the many rural areas that are not adequately supplied with antivenin.

Black Mamba venom produces morphine-like effects under certain conditions and is being studied for possible medicinal use.

Threat and Attack Behavior

According to most observers, mambas will flee if able when approached by people. Much to my chagrin, zoo specimens tend to stand their ground, as retreat options are limited! The same may be said of those surprised in buildings or other enclosed areas. Drawn by rodents and nesting birds, Black Mambas are not uncommon in and around buildings in some regions. There are well-documented instances of multiple deaths being caused by single Black Mambas that have fallen from roofs onto people sleeping below.

Disturbed mambas raise the first third of the body off the ground and flare a narrow skin flap that lies along the neck. The mouth is held open, exposing the jet black interior, as the animal hisses and moves its head from side to side.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by deror avi

Range

Two subspecies have been described. Dendroaspis p. polylepis ranges from Ethiopia to South Africa. A widely separated population occurs in parts of tropical West Africa, but the extent of this part of the range is not well-studied. D. p. antinori is confined to Ethiopia, Somalia, northern Kenya and northern Uganda.

Three additional mamba species, all highly arboreal, also occur in Africa – the Eastern Green Mamba (D. angusticeps, please see photo), the Western Green Mamba (D. viridis), and the Jameson’s Mamba (D. jamesoni).

Habitat

The Black Mamba inhabits open forests, wooded savannahs, rocky thorn scrub and the fringes of the Kalahari Desert, but also colonizes farms and villages. Although largely terrestrial, it climbs well and often shelters in tree hollows, thatched roofs and arboreal termite mounds.

There is some evidence that specific home ranges are maintained, and that the same shelter may be utilized for quite long periods of time.

Diet

Birds, mammals (shrews, hyrax, rodents, bats), snakes, and lizards

Activity

In most regions, Black Mambas are diurnal, but seek shelter during the hottest part of the day. There is evidence of nocturnal and crepuscular activity patterns among some populations as well.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Gerhardt Nieuwoudt

Reproduction

Males wrestle for dominance during the mating season (please see photo). Females deposit 6-17 eggs in mammal burrows, termite mounds, tree hollows and similar sites. The hatchlings average 15-24 inches in length. Black Mambas grow very quickly, with well-fed individuals reportedly reaching a length of 6 feet within their first year of life.

Status of Wild Populations

Detailed studies are lacking, but Black Mambas appear to adapt well to human presence. Agricultural expansion has increased the likelihood of mamba encounters and bites. Given the danger that this species poses to people, it is likely that efforts to eliminate it from developed areas will continue.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Venomous Snakebite: My Experiences and Global Study Results

King Cobra Care and Natural History

Post from: That Reptile Blog

Africa’s Deadliest Snake? Black Mamba Habits, Venom and Behavior

The post Africa’s Deadliest Snake? Black Mamba Habits, Venom and Behavior appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 03 May 2013 15:03:28 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As a small boy, I devoured the books of Messrs.’ Ditmars, Kauffeld, Whittaker, Sanderson and others who sought out snakes in their natural habitats. The formidable Black Mamba, (Dendroaspis polylepis), accorded respect by all, was given a special place of honor by legendary snake man C.J.P. Ionides in Mambas and Maneaters. Although I was eager to expand my snake hunting experiences, these authors convinced me that this longest of Africa’s venomous snakes was better observed than handled. Fate intervened, however, and I wound up working closely with what has been described as “Africa’s deadliest snake”. Accounts of the recent escape of a Black Mamba from the Pretoria Zoo brought an experience of my own back to mind…

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Tad Arensmeier

Handling Mambas and Cobras

Zoo-based reptile keepers such as I handle thousands of venomous snakes over the course of their careers. A snake hook generally fits the bill for routine tasks. The Black Mamba, King Cobra and several related species, however, present special challenges, especially when they reach full size. Quick, high-strung, and seemingly more alert and intelligent than others, many Elapids (cobras, mambas and their relatives) are difficult to move via snake hooks….all old reptile keepers have their stories. You can read about my adventures with an escaped King Cobra in this article.

I was fortunate in having had the benefit of working with several older, well- experienced keepers, and had no illusions about “proving” myself when it came to cobras and mambas. I feel that “discretion is the better part of valor” where they are concerned, a belief confirmed by observations made in the course of responding to many snakebite emergencies over the years. Whenever possible, I relied upon shift cages or other “tricks” (please see article below) when I needed to move a mamba.

You Want Me to Do What with the Black Mamba?!

But there came I time when, as consultant for the renovation of the Staten Island Zoo’s reptile house, I was called upon to capture a large Black Mamba and ready it for shipment to another zoo. The snake, a large adult, had not been on a snake hook or otherwise manipulated in years. A shift cage was attached to its exhibit, and the exhibit door was not opened for cleaning unless the snake was locked away in the shift.

Snakes in transit are confined in pillow cases or similar cloth bags, which are tied tightly and then placed into a second bag. Generally a straightforward task… but not with an aggressive, 9 foot-long snake that can flip off a snake hook or exit a bag in the blink of an eye!

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Bill Love / Blue Chameleon Ventures / Reptile & Amphibian Photo Gallery

How to Bag a Black Mamba

After some consideration, I decided to lure rather than force the mamba into a bag. I found a bag of the right size and secured it with duct tape to the opening that led from the exhibit into the shift cage. I then acclimated the snake to feeding within the bag. Black Mambas have fast metabolisms by snake standards, and generally consume quite a bit more food than similarly-sized individuals of other species…hatchlings have been known to reach 6 feet in length within by within one year. Hunger can, therefore, sometimes be used to manipulate them.

You can bet I kept our Black Mamba very hungry prior to shipment! This is standard practice when shipping any snake, as stress can induce regurgitation and related problems, but to be honest I was far more concerned with my stress levels than the mamba’s! When it came time to confine the snake, I rubbed the inside of the bag with a mouse and opened the shift door. Happily, the mamba shot it without hesitation.

I was careful to secure the bag’s opening with a long handled tong, after which I lifted the now violently-moving package into a large plastic garbage can. As is done when packing all snakes, I pulled the neck and 2 feet or so of the bag out of the can, and then placed the can’s lid securely on top. Thus, the snake was confined in that part of the bag which remained within the can, and the lid prevented it from reaching the bag’s neck (or my hand). I could now safely tie the bag by hand, and then secure it further with a cable tie.

I think that some of my younger co-workers would have preferred a more dramatic capture, but I was quite pleased with myself (as was the zoo’s curator and the doctor who had been placed on notice at the local hospital!).

Natural History

Occasionally approaching 14 feet in length, the Black Mamba is the longest of Africa’s venomous snakes, and its venom is among the most toxic to be found on the continent. Add to this a wide range, the ability to colonize farms and villages, and a propensity to bite multiple times in quick succession when threatened, and it becomes clear why this a creature of much concern and deserving of detailed study. Yet it remains difficult to separate mamba fact from fiction. I’ll cover Black Mamba lore and natural history in the near future.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Snake Hunting with Romulus Whittaker

Snake Escapes: Recapturing Cobras and Others

Post from: That Reptile Blog

Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes

The post Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

Snake Conservation in 2013 – The “Year of the Snake” Begins

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 12 Feb 2013 18:15:38 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In 2010, I highlighted a study that documented steep declines in a number of snake species. Despite disturbing similarities to the “Disappearing Amphibian Crisis”, the snake situation seems not to have generated widespread concern. In my own career as a herpetologist, opportunities to become involved in snake conservation were also limited. Although I was fortunate enough to work in programs designed to bolster the populations of several species, including Green Anacondas, Indigo and Hognose Snakes, most such efforts were short-lived. I was pleased to learn, therefore, that a partnership of several major conservation organizations has made the plight of the world’s snakes a priority for the year 2013.

The Year of the Snake…your input needed

The Year of the Snake effort is spearheaded by Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, and was preceded the Year of the Turtle and the Year of the Lizard. PARC will be joined by the Center for Conservation Biology, the Orianne Society and other notables (please click here for a complete list). In addition to field research and captive breeding programs, public education will be a major component of each group’s activities. I was very glad to see that input from interested non-professionals will be solicited. This is an all-too-rare step, despite the fact that professionals, being limited in both numbers and financial resources, cannot begin to address the myriad conservation needs of the world’s threatened snakes. Please see “What Can I Do”?, below, if you wish to participate.

Threats

Many snakes are declining for well-known reasons, while others face mysterious threats. In several cases, populations have declined by 90% in well-protected areas, a distressing phenomenon that has also been seen among frogs (i.e. the now extinct Golden Toad). I’ll mention just a few below, please write in for further information.

Disease

Most herp enthusiasts are well-aware of the Chytrid fungus epidemic, which has been responsible for the extinctions of 200+ amphibian species. Recently, a fungus that was previously believed limited to captive snakes, Chrysosporium, has been found in wild Timber Rattlesnakes. Although much work remains to be done, there is reason for concern.

Collection

In the USA and abroad, snakes are collected for the pet, leather, medicinal and food trades. Even where, as in the USA, strict regulations are in place, authorities are hampered by poor funding and a lack of management plans. Snakes are extremely difficult to study, and we usually know nothing about the effects of collection (legal or illegal) until drastic declines become apparent.

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

This problem is well-known to all environmentally conscious people, so I’ll just mention 1 sad statistic contained in a recent PARC newsletter:

Ninety-eight percent of the Longleaf Pine habitat in the USA’s southeastern Coastal Plain is gone. This unique ecosystem was home to many at-risk species, including Diamondback Rattlesnakes and Southern Hognose, Indigo and Pine Snakes.

Invasive Species

Mention invasive species and snakes today, and many people will think of Burmese Pythons in Florida or Brown Treesnakes wiping out nearly all of Guam’s forest birds. But snakes also suffer the effects of introduced species. On Antigua, Black Rats and Indian Mongooses, both non-native, brought the Antiguan Racer (Alsophis antiguae) to the brink of extinction. Once reduced to a mere 50 individuals, the total population now numbers nearly 900, but is far from secure.

The subtler effects of introduced species can be seen in the USA’s Sagebrush Steppe Ecosystem, where invasive Cheatgrass has drastically diminished rodent populations key to the survival of the Great Basin Rattlesnake, Crotalus oreganus lutosus.

Year of the Snake Programs

A number of new conservation efforts have already been initiated, and several established programs have been revitalized.

Although designated as a threatened species by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1978, wild populations of the Eastern Indigo Snake, Drymarchon couperi, remain depressed. The Orianne Society has enlisted the help of private breeders, zoos, universities, museums and others in establishing a breeding and management plan.

Populations of the Armenian Viper, Montivipera raddei, and related species have declined by up to 88% in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran. The St. Louis Zoo has worked to establish 3 preserves in the region, and continues research there.

Limited in distribution to islands within Lake Erie, the Lake Erie Watersnake, Nerodia sipedon insularis, has rebounded and been removed from the Endangered Species List. Control of the invasive Round Goby, which displaced the snake’s preferred prey, and a public education program, led to the recovery.

What’s Next…What can I Do?

The legendary Carl Kauffeld, author of such gems as Snakes, the Keeper and the Kept and Snakes and Snake Keeping, put the Staten Island Zoo on the herp world’s map. I haunted its famed reptile house as a child, but was far too shy to approach the man himself. Decades later, I was thrilled to serve as consultant when the building was renovated. I’m happy to report that we have shifted the collection’s focus back to the rattlesnakes and other venomous species so favored by the famous snakeman. Supporting institutions that study and breed endangered snakes is a wonderful and enjoyable means of assuring their survival.

Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation is soliciting articles, observations, stories, poems and other input from non-herpetologists interested in snake conservation. Please visit the PARC website for further information on participating in their worthwhile efforts.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Venomous Snakebites – My Experiences and Notes on Well-Known Victims

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 07 Sep 2012 19:12:07 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. TV personality Mark O’Shea’s recent King Cobra bite brought to mind the many experiences I’ve had as a snakebite responder for the Bronx Zoo. Mr. O’Shea survived, but venomous snakes claim a surprising number of lives worldwide (4.5 million bites, possibly 100,000 deaths; please see article below). Some bites, as you’ll see, occur in a most unlikely place –New York City! As is fitting for my fair city, few were “routine” – guns, odd characters, suicides, and drug dealers all made appearances.

Zoos and Snakebite Emergencies

The Bronx Zoo cooperates with health authorities in the treatment of venomous snakebites. Antivenin is typically stored at the zoo, not in hospitals. A doctor called upon to treat a bite might not be able to identify the snake involved, and hence would be unable to administer the correct antivenin. In the event of a bite, Bronx Zoo reptile keepers and other staff are summoned by zoo security, a hospital, or the NYPD. Usually, NYPD transports us to the hospital.

In years past, the Bronx Zoo reptile staff was trained to inject antivenin on site. However, we now know that many people are allergic to antivenin, and the resulting anaphylactic shock can kill more quickly than many bites.

Today zookeepers learn emergency first aid, and if bitten would be taken to the hospital via police car. Snakebite alarms are located near each appropriate cage. I once had venom enter my eye when an Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake struck the screen top of its enclosure. This is normally not a concern, as only Spitting Cobra venom affects eye tissue, but there were stitches in my eye due to a recent cornea transplant. Thinking this might allow venom into my bloodstream, I activated the emergency system. Putting myself in the NYPD’s capable hands, I arrived at Jacobi Hospital in record time.

Big Apple Snakebites

Late nights, men in their 20’s, and alcohol were involved in many of the bites I responded to while working at the Bronx Zoo. Yet several especially “bizarre” (being diplomatic here!) incidents lacked these common elements. For example, one young man decided to determine the sex of an illegally-captured Copperhead while driving – with his dog in the car! Needless to say, he was bitten.

Another man, aged 45 or so, routinely carried snakes in his robe pocket, and was said to shower with a cobra! He was bitten on 4-5 occasions, and several times arrived at the hospital via private chopper (he was wealthy with, some have suggested, a bit too much free time on his hands!). His closest brush with death came when he grabbed an electrified cattle fence during a rainstorm, after a Timber Rattlesnake bite. Believing he could “de-nature” the venom, he instead succeeded in “de-naturing” his blood! The attending doctor commented that his blood was “not really blood anymore” – it lacked all clotting factors, and resembled that of someone struck by lightning.

I was sometimes called to Kennedy Airport to assist US F&W Service inspectors with imports. On one occasion, an importer was bitten by an Indian Cobra and barely escaped with his life. However, he then spent a chunk of that life in jail, as illegal weapons were found secreted below the snakes.

The two snake-related deaths that occurred during my tenure had unusual twists. In one sad incident, a distraught young man committed suicide, apparently by inducing his “pet” rattlesnake to bite repeatedly. In the other, a suspected drug dealer was bitten by a small cobra that he was planning to use as a guardian of sorts. Believing the bite to be “minor”, he decided to “monitor it”. He passed away in his sleep that night.

A most interesting call came from the NYPD late one night. In the course of investigating the burglary of a food store in Flushing, they encountered 40 or so live, poorly-caged Western Diamondback Rattlesnakes; others were cooked and steeping in various liquids.

In the course of my career, I and/or my co-workers responded to 30-40 snakebite calls. I recall only one that involved a person being bitten while working outdoors. The culprit was a Massasauga or “Swamp Rattler” (Sistrurus catenatus), a rare species that I have yet to observe in the wild.

Venomous snakes may not legally be kept in private collections in NYC, but people can purchase them in nearby areas have no such laws. Unfortunately, many do not realize that the process of getting antivenin to a victim can be quite lengthy, and even if one survives, permanent damage, including tissue and limb loss, may result.

Those at Greatest Risk

The overwhelming majorities of snakebite victims live in the rural tropical regions, and encounter snakes in the course of their daily activities. Up to 1.5 million people are bitten in Sub-Saharan Africa alone, with over 7,000 deaths and 14,000 limb amputation resulting (only 10% receive antivenin). Please see this article for further information.

The USA presents a very different picture. Here, pet owners and people disturbing wild snakes are the typical victims. Bites to people working outdoors are not common – in 21 years of responding to snakebites in the Northeast, I dealt with but one such incident.

I know of two NYPD officers who were bitten by snakes while poking through rubble during investigations. Fortunately, one involved a Kingsnake and the other, if it was delivered by a venomous species (the snake escaped) was a “dry bite”. As often occurs, both victims were so nervous that several classic signs of envenomation appeared. This reaction is not limited to those unfamiliar with snakes. I’ve attended several bites that involved, shall we say, insecure young men with a misplaced sense of machismo – none held up the “tough guy act” after being bitten!

Zoo-based reptile keepers handle many snakes in the course of their careers (via snake hook – hands are for TV personalities!). Bites occur, but are rare, all things considered. However, working closely with dangerous animals is a risky business, and even the most retiring of creatures can surprise the most experienced of herpetologists…witness Steve Irwin’s tragic death while filming a stingray (possibly a Cowtail Ray, Pastinachus sephen) in 2006.

“Well-Known” Snakebites

Of course, not all bites occur under the unusual circumstances I’ve described. Well respected biologists are not immune. In fact, two snake species were not known to be venomous until they killed prominent herpetologists! (Please write in for details). More recently (2001), noted herpetologist Joseph Slowinski was killed by a Multi-banded Krait (Bulgaris multicintus) while on field research in Myanmar in 2001.

The recent King Cobra bite to Mr. O’Shea occurred during a feeding accident at a UK zoo. Mr. O’Shea, believing that the fangs had not broken his skin, continued his presentation until becoming dizzy (Marlin Perkins, of Wild Kingdom fame, actually took notes on the progression of his symptoms after being bitten by a Gaboon Viper at the St. Louis Zoo! Luckily, he was found, unconscious, by a keeper. I’m in no position to criticize such an accomplished man, but….!). Mr. O’Shea is expected to make a full recovery. I’ve dealt with captive and escaped King Cobras – they are in a class by themselves; please see A Close Call with a King Cobra for details.

Legendary snakeman Bill Haast was bitten hundreds of times, and routinely injected venom into his body in hopes of building up immunities. His unique story is related here.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake Facts – the World’s Largest Rattler

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 06 Jun 2012 15:17:22 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Today I’d like to cover a snake that, while not suitable as a pet, stands out in the minds of many as North America’s most impressive serpent – the Eastern Diamondback (Crotalus adamanteus). In my youth, the nearby Staten Island Zoo’s Reptile House was under the direction of the legendary Carl Kauffeld. The collection contained every known rattlesnake species but, somehow, a massive pair of Eastern Diamondbacks stood apart. Several years ago, I was thrilled to be chosen as consultant for the renovation of this building , and Rattlesnakes, including the Eastern Diamondback, again take center stage there.

Description

The record length of this largest of the world’s 33 rattlesnake species is 8 feet, 3 inches; most adults top out at 3-6 feet. In the USA, only the Indigo, Bull, Gopher and Black Rat Snakes approach or, very rarely, exceed this measurement.

The background color of this heavy-bodied, venomous snake ranges from olive through brown to (rarely) near-black. The back is patterned in white-centered dark diamonds that are sharply outlined in cream or yellow.

Captives have lived in excess of 22 years, but longevity in the wild has not been well-studied.

Range

The Eastern Diamondback is confined to the Southeastern United States, along the lower Atlantic Coastal Plain. It has been recorded in southeastern North Carolina, South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Florida (including the Florida Keys).

Habitat

Longleaf pine and sand-hill ecosystems, palmetto and wiregrass prairies and open pine-oak forests are essential to this species’ survival. Unfortunately, only an estimated 2-3% of its original natural habitat remains; consequently, abandoned farms and citrus groves are sometimes utilized. The Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake shares the longleaf pine (“Flatwoods”) ecosystem with other rare creatures, such as the Flatlands Salamander, Gopher Tortoise, Gopher Frog, Bachman’s Sparrow and Red-Cockaded Woodpecker.

Individuals shelter in Gopher Tortoise burrows, saw palmetto thickets and beneath tree stumps, and may establish home ranges of up to 500 acres.

Except at the southern tip of its range, the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake retreats underground as winter approaches. It often utilizes Gopher Tortoise burrows, and emerges to bask on warm days.

Status

This species is in severe decline due to habitat loss and collection for the skin, novelty and meat trade. Untold numbers have been killed during “rattlesnake roundups”, which are still a tradition in some areas. Gasoline is often poured into burrows (which are also critical habitat for Gopher Tortoises, Gopher Frogs and other species) to facilitate snake collection. Gasoline renders the burrows unusable for several years. Fortunately, there has been at least some movement towards stopping these events; please see the article below.

The Eastern Diamondback is not federally protected. However, spurred by a Center for Biological Diversity lawsuit filed in 2011, the US Fish and Wildlife Service is currently evaluating the species for inclusion on the Endangered Species List; please see article below.

North Carolina protects the Diamondback, but it may already be extinct there. Several states consider it “Of Special Concern”, but offer no legal protection. A CITES listing has been proposed, and the IUCN designation is “Least Concern”.

Reproduction

The young, 7-29 in number, are born alive from July through October, and measure 12-15 inches at birth. Females generally give birth every 2-3 years, depending upon their diet and condition. Sexual maturity is reached in 2-4 years.

Diet

This “sit-and-wait” predator consumes rice rats, pocket gophers, cotton rats, squirrels, deer mice, chipmunks, rabbits, raccoons, opossums, feral cats and other mammals; birds are also taken on occasion.

Rattlesnake Biology

Rattlesnakes and other “pit vipers” are placed in the subfamily Crotalinae, along with palm vipers, copperheads, cottonmouths and related species. Considered to be the most highly evolved of the snakes, pit vipers possess a highly sophisticated organ that detects the infra-red rays produced by birds and mammals. Located in a depression between the eye and nostril, it is far more sensitive than similar organs possessed by boas and pythons, and may be considered more of an “imaging device” than mere heat receptor.

Rattlesnakes, confined to the Western Hemisphere, reach their greatest diversity in the American Southwest and Mexico, with 13 of the 33 known species occurring in Arizona alone.

The rattle, unique among snakes, is composed of a series of loosely-connected segments. Specialized muscles in the tail vibrate the rattle so as to produce the characteristic warning sound. The Santa Catalina Rattlesnake, confined to the island of the same name, is the only species that lacks a rattle.

Rattlesnakes and other vipers have evolved hinged fangs that fold back against the roof of the mouth, within a sheath, when not in use (please see photo). Venom is injected in the manner of a hypodermic needle.

All rattlesnakes bear live offspring, and several species appear to provide a degree of parental care. The Black-Tailed Rattlesnake has been shown to recognize siblings after a 2 year separation. Please see the article below for further information on rattlesnakes.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Snake Hunting with Romulus Whitaker – Learning from the Master

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 23 Mar 2012 15:01:44 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. A life engrossed in herpetology has provided me with more adventures than I dared expect. From tagging Leatherback Turtles in St. Croix to heaving Green Anacondas from a Venezuelan swamp, I’ve been quite fortunate. But I’ve always known that natural wonders are also plentiful close at hand. In fact, one of my most exciting herping trips took place in a NYC suburb.

Note: I’d enjoy hearing about your own unforgettable (and “wish you could forget”!) herping experiences. Whether your tales involve garter snakes in the backyard or crocodile monitors in New Guinea, please write in so that I can share them with other readers, thanks.

Turtle Enthusiasts Gather at SUNY Purchase

In July of 1993, I attended an amazing, week-long international conference held in Westchester County, NY – The Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles. Hosted by the dedicated folks at the NY Turtle and Tortoise Society, this gathering of leading professionals and serious hobbyists has, in my experience, yet to be matched. The 500-page conference proceedings are an invaluable resource, and I highly recommend them to anyone with more than a passing interest in turtles and tortoises. You can order the proceedings, for the unbelievable price of $20, here.

Romulus Whitaker

Romulus Whitaker, one of the world’s foremost herpetologists, was in attendance as a speaker. Although most often associated with his work in India, Mr. Whitaker actually grew up in NYC; I had long been in awe of the accomplishments of my fellow New Yorker. At the time, I was a reptile keeper at the Bronx Zoo, working with Indian Gharials that had hatched at the Madras Crocodile Bank, founded by Mr. Whitaker. Curiously, the Gharials went off feed for 5 months each year, despite being kept warm, yet remained active and lost little weight.

I introduced myself to Mr. Whitaker, and right away found that he lived up to his reputation as a pleasant soul, always willing to share his expertise. We spoke often over the next few days, and I learned a great deal about Gharials, Painted Terrapins, Giant River Turtles, Narrow-Headed Softshells and other South Asian reptiles that I cared for (the Gharials, I discovered, were responding to an internal “clock” that informed them it was winter in their native land).

Snake Hunting with a Legend

Towards the end of the conference, Mr. Whitaker asked if I might take him to a spot where he could see some native NY snakes…those that first inspired his interest as a child. It happened that we were in the middle of a hot, dry spell at the time and, what’s more, I wasn’t very familiar with the surrounding area. So there I was, about to go snake hunting with Romulus Whitaker at a time when I’d be lucky to find a Brown Snake!

I made some frantic calls to local contacts and learned that Ward Pound Ridge Reservation would be my best option. I had previously been involved in salamander research there, and was relieved to recall that this largest of Westchester’s preserved areas was something of a herp haven, despite being so close to NYC.

All herpers (or birders, or naturalists of any sort) soon learn that animals rarely if ever show up when you wish, or do what “is expected of them”. But, as is true with of all with a passion for reptiles, Mr. Whitaker showed almost child-like excitement at the prospect of finding even the commonest of snakes. Buoyed by his enthusiasm, I resolved to do my best.

Was I in for a surprise! In quick succession, we found Black Ratsnakes, Black Racers, Eastern Garter Snakes, Northern Watersnakes, Brown Snakes and Northern Red-Bellied Snakes; the most productive near-city trip of my life. Even more surprising, given that we were in a dry spell in mid-July, was the discovery of Dusky, Red-Backed and Slimy Salamanders, and Eastern Spotted Newts. A number of interesting spiders rounded out the day. (Note: all animals were released).

Wonderful Encounters, Near and Far

I’m rarely superstitious, but I believe that the man was truly charmed! It was such a pleasure to see him in action…despite being at the pinnacle of his profession, he was as thrilled to be in the field as my 4-year-old nephew is today. I knew of Mr. Whitaker’s reputation for speed and agility, but was still surprised at how good he was at catching even sun-warmed Black Racers. He leapt headlong into thick cover in his pursuits, and rarely came up empty handed. Although younger, in very good shape, and well-experienced, I was not at all in his class…I’m sure the same remains true today!

What a day, and what a conference. Soon after, Mr. Whitaker departed to begin work with nesting King Cobras in India, and I was off to tag Green Anacondas in Venezuela (please see articles below). But, looking back, I see that we enjoyed our time at Ward Pound Ridge just as much as those “exotic” adventures. We herpers are indeed a lucky bunch…the world, near and far, holds so much of interest for us. I look forward to hearing about your own trips and observations.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Skinks, Sea Snakes and Caecilians – Surprising New Species Discovered

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 01 Mar 2012 16:27:35 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. New reptiles and amphibians turn up regularly, but, being generally small and inconspicuous, most excite only hard-core herp enthusiasts. In recent days, however, a string of good-sized, colorful and totally unexpected discoveries have drawn attention from even “regular” people. The new species include a spiny, brick-red skink, a sea snake with uniquely-raised scales, and a new family of hard-headed caecilians, those oddest of amphibians.

Western Pilbara Spiny-Tailed Skink (Ergenia cygnitos)

The beautiful, deep-red color of this spine-covered skink closely matches the rocks of its desert habitat in Western Australia’s Pilbara region. You can see its photo and learn more in the article linked below.

Over the past 12 months, 9 other new species – 7 reptiles and 2 frogs – have been found in the same area. Several related skinks (please see photo) and a “barking” gecko are included among the newly-described creatures. Mining proposals spurred the surveys in Pilbara. Hopefully, the discovery so many previously unknown species will limit commercial activities until further studies have been completed.

Rough-Scaled Sea Snake (Hydrophis donaldi)

The world’s 60 true Sea Snakes depart radically from others in form and lifestyle, and they have, therefore, been studied in detail. As most occur in areas that are heavily fished by commercial trawlers, it has long been assumed that none remained to be found. So the recent discovery of new species in Northern Australia, where 31 others reside, was quite a surprise. Stranger still is the fact that it bears raised scales, rendering it unique among the sea snakes. Unlike its sea-going relatives, the aptly-named Rough-Scaled Sea Snake inhabits shallow estuaries – habitats that are not often visited by commercial fishermen or herpetologists.

Nine specimens of the new species, described by herpetologist Bryan Frye, have been found in the Gulf of Carpentaria region. Like all sea snakes, it produces complex venom which, if past studies are a guide, may contain medically-useful compounds. A photo of the new snake is included in the article linked below.

Sea Snakes are not often exhibited, so I feel fortunate to have worked with the beautifully-marked Yellow-Bellied Sea Snake (please see photo) at the Bronx Zoo. A confirmed “eel-specialist”, it was not the easiest of snakes to accommodate, but well-worth the effort.

A New Caecilian Family

The legless Caecilians are the least-studied of the amphibians. But what little we do know is startling…this video, showing young caecilians feeding on skin that their mother grows for this purpose, says it all!

Over the past 5 years, 250 surveys in northeastern India have turned up a variety of species, some so unique that a new family, Chikilidae, has been formed to accommodate them. Dwelling in forests and agricultural areas, Chikilid caecilians sport hard skulls that assist them in pushing their way through the soil. A photo of a female with her brood is included in the article linked below.

The Delhi University researchers who found the new caecilians have also described 57 other Indian amphibians. Thirty percent of India’s known amphibians have been discovered in the last 10 years, leading herpetologists to believe that many other surprises are in store.

Oddly enough, one of the world’s few aquatic caecilians sometimes appears in the pet trade. Sold under the name “Rubber Eel”, the Rio Cauca Caecilian has long fascinated me; please check out my article Notes on the Rubber Eel to learn more about this fascinating creature.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Venomous Snakebite – a New Study, and my own Experiences

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 17 Jan 2012 17:34:46 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As a career herpetologist, I’ve had several opportunities to study venomous snakes in the field, and have spoken with many people who live in areas where they are common. My experiences led me to believe that venomous snakebite is a far more serious problem than is typically reported. Recently, two important studies have established that at least 4.5 million people are bitten annually – 1.5 million in Sub-Saharan Africa alone. Yet snakebite was only recently included on the World Health Organization’s list of Neglected Tropical Conditions, and in many countries few victims receive appropriate treatment.

Africa

The most intensive study to date, published in the journal Toxicon (V.57, N.4; see abstract below), reviewed 40 years’ worth of African medical reports and surveys. The authors concluded that at least 1.5 million people, 95% of whom live in rural regions, are bitten in Sub-Saharan Africa annually. At least 7,000 people die as a result, and up to 14,000 require limb amputations. Antivenin, the most effective snakebite treatment, is administered to only 10% of those bitten in Africa.

The Puff Adder, Bitis arietans and the Saw-scaled Viper, Echis carinatus, account for most of Africa’s envenomations.

Global Snakebite Initiative

Difficulties in accessing data, and the problem of un-reported incidents in remote areas, lead many to believe that the scope of the problem is even greater than suggested in the Toxicon report.

In 2008, the University of Melbourne’s Australian Venom Research Unit launched the Global Snakebite Initiative (please see below). This group’s research indicates that, worldwide, 4.5 million people are bitten by venomous snakes each year. Fatalities are likely in the range of 100,000, and 250,000+ victims suffer permanent disabilities.

Antivenin: Expense and Access

Antivenin is extremely expensive, and expires within 1-3 years. I had problems keeping adequate stock on hand even in well-funded US zoos. Import restrictions and difficulties in contacting antivenin suppliers complicate matters.

Even within the last 5 years, when one would think that communication would be less of a problem, I’ve run into trouble. In one instance, after being frustrated by a 6 week delay and mounds of red tape, I asked a Thai friend to phone an antivenin lab in her native country and sort everything out. Her, shall we say, “strong personality”, did the trick!

In rural, often impoverished regions of Africa, India and Southeast Asia, expensive antivenin is simply not available to most snakebite victims. Yet it is in such places that the vast majority of bites occur.

Responding to Local Snakebites

In the USA, major zoos stock antivenin for staff use, and usually also respond to local emergencies. In my time with the Bronx Zoo, I responded to 10-12 local snakebites. Including bites handled by co-workers in that 21-year period, only one incident involved a person being bitten in the course of working outdoors (upstate NY); oddly, the culprit was the endangered Massasauga, Sistrurus catenatus.

Collection attempts and captive snakes were responsible for all other bites. Some of the incidents were “odd”, to say the least. One young man captured (illegally) a Copperhead and, while driving home (with his dog in the car), decided to determine its sex! He was bitten, of course, but recovered after treatment.

Another gentleman routinely carried Timber Rattlesnakes and other venomous species in the pocket of his bathrobe. Not surprisingly, he was bitten 4-5 times over the years. He once tried to “treat” a bite by grasping onto an electrified cattle-barrier fence during a rainstorm (in the mistaken belief that he could “de-nature” the venom).

Sprayed by a Venom-Spitting Rattlesnake!

Bites to zookeepers are quite rare, especially considering the number of snakes many handle while servicing exhibits.

Diamondback Rattlesnake venom was once sprayed into my eyes after a snake struck the screen top of its enclosure. Normally this is not a concern (and normally rattlers do not “spray” venom!) as only Spitting Cobra venom damages eye tissue. However, a recent cornea transplant put me at risk, as the stitches may have allowed the venom to enter my bloodstream. Fortunately, all went well.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Newly Discovered Black and Yellow Viper is Already Endangered

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 04 Jan 2012 16:04:32 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. A remote, mountainous forest in southwestern Tanzania is the only place where Matilda’s Horned Viper (Atheris matildae) resides. Described as a new species in the December, 2011 issue of Zootaxa, the boldly-colored, arboreal snake seems limited to 100 square miles of somewhat degraded habitat.

Natural History

Named for the daughter of one of the researchers who discovered it, Matilda’s Horned Viper is stoutly built, sports horn-like scales above the eyes and is highly-adapted to life above ground.

I’ve had the opportunity to work with several of its brightly colored relatives, but this did not prepare me for the new species’ amazing appearance; the effect of the black and yellow zigzag pattern is hard to describe (please see article below for additional photos). I’m not sure if these colors serve as a predator deterrent or as camouflage in sun-dappled forest clearings, but look forward to reading future reports on its natural history.

Bush Viper Diversity

The forests in which Matilda’s Horned Viper lives are separated from others by open grasslands, which effectively isolate the snake from related species. Genetic studies have revealed its closest relative to be the Usambura Bush Viper (Atheris ceratophora), from which it likely evolved some 2 million years ago.

An additional 16-17 Atheris species, commonly known as “Bush Vipers”, range throughout Sub-Saharan Africa (please see article below). With a single exception, they have prehensile tails and are highly-arboreal. Many are brilliantly-colored, and populations of a single species may vary greatly in appearance from others of their kind. Five species inhabit Tanzania, but their ranges do not overlap that of Matilda’s Horned Viper.

Endemics Galore

Tanzania is chock full of species found nowhere else on earth, known as endemics – 64 reptiles, 55 amphibians, 24 mammals, 108 freshwater fishes, 19 birds – and surveys are far from complete. Tarantula enthusiasts also know it as a country of unique, unstudied spiders. Please see the article below for a complete list of Tanzania’s endemic reptiles.

Conservation Strategies

Rare, beautiful snakes, even venomous ones, are worth a great deal of money. With this in mind, the exact location of the new species’ habitat is a closely-guarded secret, and a captive population has been established as a hedge against extinction.

In a surprising twist on traditional conservation techniques, researchers have announced that captive-born young, if produced, may be offered to collectors free-of-charge. It is hoped that this will deter the taking of wild individuals. Odd perhaps, but “desperate times require desperate measures” – after all, prohibitions on hunting rhinos and other valuable animals have proven largely ineffective in much of Africa.

CITES I and IUCN Critically Endangered designations have been proposed for Matilda’s Horned Viper as well.

Other New Vipers

2011 was a banner year for viper researchers, with several new species being described. Please see the article below for more on Ruby-Eyed Vipers and other surprising finds.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio