That Reptile Blog » Non-venomous Snakes

Venomous Pythons? – Snakebite Victims Benefit from New Research

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 14 May 2013 15:40:59 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In recent years, researchers have found toxins in a wide array of snakes and lizards formerly believed to be harmless…even the Bearded Dragon is not above suspicion (please see below), but venomous pythons? While working at the Bronx Zoo, I was several times called upon to assist in confiscating snakes that had appeared in the pet trade before we learned of their potentially lethal venom (i.e. Asian Watersnakes, genus Rhabdophis). All evidence of toxicity must be taken seriously…bear in mind that both the Boomslang and Savanna Twig Snake were thought to be harmless until each killed a prominent herpetologist! The recent discovery of toxins in the mucus of certain pythons poses a unique and unexpected concern for snakebite victims.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by CorneliusA

Python Venom

Studies at the University of Queensland have revealed the presence of toxins in the mucus of several python species. Described as “relic venom”, they occur in only trace amounts. In common with many other snakes, pythons may have relied upon venom at some point in their evolutionary history. Although they no longer utilize venom to overcome prey or defend themselves, pythons continue to produce some toxic compounds. While some snakes bear toxins that target specific animals (i.e. Tentacled Snakes, Erpeton tentaculatum, which prey upon fish), python toxins seem to have no use, and pose no danger to people.

The toxin molecules thus far identified in pythons differ from those found in any known venomous snake. Being so chemically unique, they are of great interest to those seeking to develop new chemical compounds and medicines.

Implications for Snakebite Victims

Potential problems arise when a person is bitten by a snake that has not been identified. In such cases, a highly-sensitive venom detection kit is used to determine if toxins are present in the victim. The harmless toxins found in python mucus can trigger a positive response following a python bite, and may result in the unnecessary administration of antivenin (medicines used to counteract snake venom).

In addition to being extremely expensive, antivenin triggers violent allergic reactions in many people. If not treated properly, anaphylactic shock and death can result. Unnecessary treatment also depletes antivenin stocks, which are often difficult to replace. The potential for such problems is greatest in Australia, which is home to a wide variety of both pythons and venomous snakes.

Famous Herpetologists Killed by “Harmless Snakes”

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by TimVickers

Until rather recently, snakes in the family Colubridae (which contains those “typical snakes” with which most people are familiar) were considered relatively harmless. The family’s venomous members are rear-fanged, and it was believed that their seemingly ineffective venom-delivery systems posed little threat to people.

In 1957, however, world-renowned herpetologist Karl P. Schmidt was bitten by a Boomslang (Dispholidus typus) while working at the Chicago Field Museum. At the time, the Boomslang was not believed to be dangerously-venomous. Unconcerned by the fact that a single fang had punctured his thumb, Mr. Schmidt took notes on his symptoms and did not seek medical treatment. He expired the next day. By the early 1970’s, several other deaths had been attributed to this African Colubrid.

Another African rear-fanged snake, the Savanna Twig Snake (Thelotornis capensis), took the life of another prominent herpetologist, Robert Mertens, in 1972. Once considered harmless, this species had been implicated in several deaths by 1972. As any snake enthusiast knows, Mr. Mertens’ work is beyond reproach, but for some reason he decided to hand-feed a captive Twig Snake. He succumbed to the resulting bite after a period of three weeks.

Other Dangerous Colubrid Snakes

Fatalities have also been attributed to bites from the Yamakagashi (Rhabdophis tigrinus), a semi-aquatic Japanese snake. I was involved in confiscations of several related species in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, when they sometimes appeared in US pet stores.

Uploaded to Wikipedia by One dead president

The bites of a number of other “harmless” snakes have caused severe reactions, and all may be capable of causing human fatalities. In fact, the venom of the Blanding’s Treesnake (Boiga blandingi) is as toxic as that of certain cobras. It and related species, such as the Mangrove Snake – a high strung species that I found very difficult to work with in zoo exhibits – should be treated with extreme caution. Other potentially deadly species include Latin America’s Road Guarder (Conophis leneatus) and various Racers in the genera Alsophis and Philodryas.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

St. Lucia Racer, World’s Rarest Snake (Population 11) is Rediscovered

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 07 Mar 2013 16:20:17 +0000

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Postdlf

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. The St. Lucia Racer or Ornate Ground Snake, Liophis ornatus, has the unenviable distinctions of being both the world’s rarest snake and the species with the smallest range…it may even be the rarest creature on the planet. The entire population – 11 individuals at last count – is confined to a 30 acre Caribbean island off St. Lucia.

Ever since reading Archie Carr’s wonderful books as a child, I’ve been drawn to the Caribbean’s islands and coastlines. As luck would have it, I eventually found myself working at Tortuguero, Costa Rica – the very site where much of his ground-breaking Green Turtle research was done. There I became hooked on the region’s fantastic array of creatures, and endeavored to become familiar with as many as possible. In time, I tagged Leatherback Sea Turtles on St. Croix, collected Bahaman Brown Racers, Alsophis vudii, on several islands, and vowed to find again a large, flying Mole Cricket that once stopped me in my tracks on St. Lucia. Unfortunately, Caribbean animals suffer some of the world’s highest extinction rates. In fact, the St. Lucia racer was “officially extinct” for nearly 40 years. Happily, we now know that it still holds on…but just barely.

“Hello Mongooses…Goodbye Snakes”

The St Lucia Racer, known locally as the Kouwes, was once quite common. That changed in the late 1800’s, when Asian Mongooses were imported from India to battle the Black and Norway Rats that were ravaging the cane fields (a naturalist’s journal from that time recounts that the British officer responsible, unsure of the proper plural form of “mongoose”, wrote his superior with this request: “Please send a mongoose” – and while you’re at it, please send several more”!).

The diurnal mongooses rarely encountered the nocturnal rats, but they made short work of many of the island’s reptiles, including the racer. Also facing threats from habitat loss due to goat grazing and development, racer populations plummeted, and the species was declared extinct in 1936.

Intelligent and adaptable, the Asian Mongoose has devastated amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, birds and small mammals throughout the West Indies. I saw them frequently on St. Croix, where they have even learned to locate the deep-set nests of Leatherback Turtles. Two St. Lucian snakes, the endemic St. Lucia Fer-de-Lance and the St. Lucia Boa (Boa constrictor orophias), exact revenge by occasionally indulging in a mongoose dinner, but this has no real effect on their numbers.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Antonio de Castro Junior

A Species Resurfaces

The St. Lucia Racer remained “extinct” until 1973, when a single specimen was found on Maria Major, a tiny, mongoose-free island off St. Lucia. But joy over the species’ rediscovery was short-lived, and after years without further sightings it was again feared to be extinct. In 2011, however, biologists from the Durrell Wildlife Trust and other organizations made a detailed survey of the island, and in the process they turned up 11 St. Lucia Racers. The snakes were outfitted with transponders and released back on Maria Major, which is now protected as a wildlife reserve.

St. Lucia Racers spend much of their time in lizard burrows among rocky thorn scrub and cactus thickets, and hence are difficult to locate. Most researchers put the total population at no more than 18, but only 11 have actually been confirmed.

Very little is known about the St. Lucia Racer’s natural history, and nothing of its reproductive biology, so captive breeding is not considered an option. There is some evidence the eggs of lizards such as the St. Lucia Whiptail (Cnemidophorus vanzoi, please see photo) make up much of its diet, but it likely takes lizards, frogs, small mammals and birds as well.

St. Lucia’s Other Reptiles and Amphibians

St. Lucia is home to approximately 28 reptile and amphibian species, only 19 of which are native. Seven of these, including the St Lucia Fer-de-Lance, Bothrops caribbaeus, the St. Lucia Thread Snake, Leptotyphus bruilei, the Cribo, Clelia errabunda, and the St. Lucia Racer, are endemic. At six inches in length and a mere 1/8th inch in width, the St. Lucia Thread Snake is the world’s second smallest serpent (another Caribbean island, Barbados, is home to the world’s smallest snake, L. carlae; please see photo and article linked below).

Unfortunately, six of St. Lucia’s native species are likely extinct, but detailed surveys are needed to confirm this. Those believed to have vanished from St. Lucia are the Antillean Skink, Maybuya maybouya, the Antiguan Pygmy Gecko, Sphaerodactylus elegantulius, the Lesser Antillean Pygmy Gecko, S. vincenti, the Mountain Chicken (a relative of the Smoky Jungle Frog), Leptodactylus fallax, the Martinique Whistling Frog, Eleutherodactylus martinicensis, and the Cribo. In addition, 5 subspecies unique to the St. Lucia are threatened with extinction.

Another Caribbean Rarity

Until being displaced by the St. Lucia Racer, the Antiguan Racer, Alsophis antigua, was considered to be the world’s rarest snake (please see photo of related Antilles Racer). Driven to the brink by mongooses, goats and rats, only 50 remained by 1999, and the species was declared extinct 1936 (and again in 2005). Fortunately, a small population was recently found on mongoose-free Great Bird Island. Predator control and relocation programs have increased the total number of Antiguan Racers to 500+ individuals on four islands.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,
Frank Indiviglio

Snake Conservation in 2013 – The “Year of the Snake” Begins

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 12 Feb 2013 18:15:38 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In 2010, I highlighted a study that documented steep declines in a number of snake species. Despite disturbing similarities to the “Disappearing Amphibian Crisis”, the snake situation seems not to have generated widespread concern. In my own career as a herpetologist, opportunities to become involved in snake conservation were also limited. Although I was fortunate enough to work in programs designed to bolster the populations of several species, including Green Anacondas, Indigo and Hognose Snakes, most such efforts were short-lived. I was pleased to learn, therefore, that a partnership of several major conservation organizations has made the plight of the world’s snakes a priority for the year 2013.

The Year of the Snake…your input needed

The Year of the Snake effort is spearheaded by Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, and was preceded the Year of the Turtle and the Year of the Lizard. PARC will be joined by the Center for Conservation Biology, the Orianne Society and other notables (please click here for a complete list). In addition to field research and captive breeding programs, public education will be a major component of each group’s activities. I was very glad to see that input from interested non-professionals will be solicited. This is an all-too-rare step, despite the fact that professionals, being limited in both numbers and financial resources, cannot begin to address the myriad conservation needs of the world’s threatened snakes. Please see “What Can I Do”?, below, if you wish to participate.

Threats

Many snakes are declining for well-known reasons, while others face mysterious threats. In several cases, populations have declined by 90% in well-protected areas, a distressing phenomenon that has also been seen among frogs (i.e. the now extinct Golden Toad). I’ll mention just a few below, please write in for further information.

Disease

Most herp enthusiasts are well-aware of the Chytrid fungus epidemic, which has been responsible for the extinctions of 200+ amphibian species. Recently, a fungus that was previously believed limited to captive snakes, Chrysosporium, has been found in wild Timber Rattlesnakes. Although much work remains to be done, there is reason for concern.

Collection

In the USA and abroad, snakes are collected for the pet, leather, medicinal and food trades. Even where, as in the USA, strict regulations are in place, authorities are hampered by poor funding and a lack of management plans. Snakes are extremely difficult to study, and we usually know nothing about the effects of collection (legal or illegal) until drastic declines become apparent.

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

This problem is well-known to all environmentally conscious people, so I’ll just mention 1 sad statistic contained in a recent PARC newsletter:

Ninety-eight percent of the Longleaf Pine habitat in the USA’s southeastern Coastal Plain is gone. This unique ecosystem was home to many at-risk species, including Diamondback Rattlesnakes and Southern Hognose, Indigo and Pine Snakes.

Invasive Species

Mention invasive species and snakes today, and many people will think of Burmese Pythons in Florida or Brown Treesnakes wiping out nearly all of Guam’s forest birds. But snakes also suffer the effects of introduced species. On Antigua, Black Rats and Indian Mongooses, both non-native, brought the Antiguan Racer (Alsophis antiguae) to the brink of extinction. Once reduced to a mere 50 individuals, the total population now numbers nearly 900, but is far from secure.

The subtler effects of introduced species can be seen in the USA’s Sagebrush Steppe Ecosystem, where invasive Cheatgrass has drastically diminished rodent populations key to the survival of the Great Basin Rattlesnake, Crotalus oreganus lutosus.

Year of the Snake Programs

A number of new conservation efforts have already been initiated, and several established programs have been revitalized.

Although designated as a threatened species by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1978, wild populations of the Eastern Indigo Snake, Drymarchon couperi, remain depressed. The Orianne Society has enlisted the help of private breeders, zoos, universities, museums and others in establishing a breeding and management plan.

Populations of the Armenian Viper, Montivipera raddei, and related species have declined by up to 88% in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran. The St. Louis Zoo has worked to establish 3 preserves in the region, and continues research there.

Limited in distribution to islands within Lake Erie, the Lake Erie Watersnake, Nerodia sipedon insularis, has rebounded and been removed from the Endangered Species List. Control of the invasive Round Goby, which displaced the snake’s preferred prey, and a public education program, led to the recovery.

What’s Next…What can I Do?

The legendary Carl Kauffeld, author of such gems as Snakes, the Keeper and the Kept and Snakes and Snake Keeping, put the Staten Island Zoo on the herp world’s map. I haunted its famed reptile house as a child, but was far too shy to approach the man himself. Decades later, I was thrilled to serve as consultant when the building was renovated. I’m happy to report that we have shifted the collection’s focus back to the rattlesnakes and other venomous species so favored by the famous snakeman. Supporting institutions that study and breed endangered snakes is a wonderful and enjoyable means of assuring their survival.

Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation is soliciting articles, observations, stories, poems and other input from non-herpetologists interested in snake conservation. Please visit the PARC website for further information on participating in their worthwhile efforts.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Round Island Boa Reintroduction – Back in Wild after a 150-Year Absence

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 12 Dec 2012 15:11:36 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Mauritius, an island nation off the coast of southeast Africa, is best known to naturalists as the site of the Dodo Bird’s extinction (Mauritius also is, in a sense, the reason I was hired by the Bronx Zoo and spared life as a lawyer – see article below for the story!). Herp enthusiasts, however, know it as the habitat of several unique reptiles, all of which are now very rare or extinct. But we can delight in some news just released by the Durrell Wildlife Trust - a new population of the Round Island or Keel-scaled Boas, Casarea dussumieri, will soon be established in the wild. This unusual snake disappeared from nearly all of its range in the 1860’s, and its return is the culmination of 40 years’ worth of captive breeding and habitat restoration efforts.

Status and Conservation

The Round Island Boa is now confined to Round Island, a tiny speck of habitat where perhaps 500-1,000 individuals survive. A single wild population and limited number of captives place it at continued risk of extinction. The new population to be established on another Mauritian island (where the snake formerly lived) is a vital step towards ensuring the species’ survival.

The Durrell Wildlife Trust became the first institution to breed the Round Island Boa, and maintains most of the captive population. Founded by legendary conservationist and author Gerard Durrell, this unique organization focuses on critically endangered animals and plants, especially those overshadowed by pandas, rhinos and other “charismatic mega-vertebrates”. The Trust was the first to breed the Giant Jumping Rat, Lesser Antilles Iguana, Flat-tailed Tortoise and scores of others (please see article below).

The Reintroduction

The island selected for the new Round Island Boa population has been cleared of the introduced black rats, goats and rabbits that previously destroyed the habitat and prey base. The snake’s primary food, the Telfair’s Skink (Leiolopisma telfairi), was released on the island in 2007 and is now well-established. Like other Mauritian reptiles, Telfair’s Skink has been eliminated from much of its range, but survives on Round Island and at the Durrell Wildlife Trust.

The boas to be reintroduced were collected from Round Island, and will first be monitored to assure that they are genetically diverse and disease-free.

Round Island Boa Natural History

Although originally placed in the genus Boa, this species differs so greatly from seemingly-related snakes that is now classified in its own genus and family (Bolyeridae). The family’s only other member, the Round Island Burrowing Boa (Bolyeria multacarinata), has not been seen since 1975 and is presumed extinct.

The Round Island Boa is oviparous, and changes in color from bright orange to grayish-brown as it matures. There are some indications that females remain with their eggs for a time. Unique scalation lends the alternative common name of Keel-scaled Boa. Juveniles and some adults (especially females) appear to be largely arboreal.

The Round Island Boa’s preferred habitat – forest and palm-dotted savannah – has been largely reduced to brushy scrub by agricultural development, introduced rabbits and goats. Rat predation on young snakes and skinks has contributed to the species’ drastic decline.

What’s Next?

The reintroduced population will be closely monitored by Durrell Wildlife Trust staffers and other conservation organizations. In addition to establishing a new population, the project may serve as a template for future herp recovery efforts. I’ll post updates as they become available.

There are many other success stories, as well as failures. Please post your own thoughts and examples below so that I can share them with readers and researchers. Thanks.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

World’s Largest Snake – Finding and Keeping a Giant Reticulated Python

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 21 Nov 2012 16:35:04 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. While working at the Bronx Zoo, I had the once-in-a lifetime opportunity of helping to import and care for one of the largest snakes in captivity. While “largest snake” debates are ongoing, the massive Reticulated Python I came to know was awe-inspiring by any standard. Dubbed “Samantha”, she was captured as an adult in Borneo, and eventually reached 26 feet in length and 275 pounds in weight. The story of how she arrived in the USA involves a cash reward established by Theodore Roosevelt, the leather trade, animal dealers and other twists and turns.

Wanted: 30 Foot-Long-Snake

In 1910, Theodore Roosevelt, long involved with the Bronx Zoo, offered a reward to the first person who presented a snake of 30 feet in length; in time the reward grew to $50,000. In 1992, I and other Bronx Zoo staff heard rumors that a giant Reticulated Python that had been captured in Borneo. We did not get overly-excited… being well-seasoned, I automatically deducted 25-50% from the size of any “biggest snake-turtle-croc” stories that came my way. But then grainy photos arrived by mail, and the snake depicted was, if not the largest I’d seen, impressive. Whether by design or bad luck, the photos did not allow us to accurately gauge the animal’s length.

In those pre-internet days, it was difficult to correspond with the leather company that owned the snake, which was confined in a railroad car near Samarinda, Borneo. Then as now, importing large animals was fraught with difficulties. Therefore, we enlisted the help of a local leather company with ties in the region and a trusted animal importer.

Meeting a Giant

I was on hand to pick up the snake when she arrived at Kennedy Airport in 1993, but just barely, as there were several cancellations and other problems. I found out about the shipment at the last minute, while at a restaurant. The ensuing trip to Kennedy and the zoo wound up being an interesting first date for my companion, who was not interested in reptiles!

As soon as we hoisted the snake’s crate, we surmised that it did not contain a record-breaker. Our suspicions were confirmed once we stretched Samantha out on the reptile house floor. At a “mere” 21 feet in length and 175 pounds in weight, she was impressive, but far short of what we had been led to believe.

However, after having handled hundreds of large constrictors, I’m able to say that our new arrival was stronger by far than any captive-raised snake of similar size. I’ve also noticed this regarding captive-bred Green Anacondas, when compared to those I’ve caught in the field. As in other species, her muscle tone was also noticeably different than that of her more sedentary relatives.

Wrestling With a Giant (and losing!)

In the wrestling match that broke out once we unpacked Samantha, I wound up in the weighing crate with her. She pushed outward and pinned me against the crate’s side. I know what broken ribs feel like, and mine were just about to crack when my co-workers managed to pull her away from me. Only a few seconds had elapsed, and she was pushing out, not constricting (when she could have exerted far more pressure), but there was no doubt that I was grossly over-matched!

Human-Python Interactions

It was difficult to obtain background information on Samantha…a great disappointment given her size and the fact that she was captured near a village. She was well known by local people, and reportedly used a cave as her main shelter. When Samantha began raiding chicken coops, she was easy to locate. Unfortunately, the actual details of her capture were never revealed.

Reticulated Pythons often adapt well to human presence, and occur even within Bangkok and Singapore, where dogs, rats, cats and livestock form part of their diets. Visiting Singapore Zoo keepers once told me that they lost an adult Cape Hunting Dog to a free-ranging Retic. I recently came across a fascinating article which revealed that 26% of the Philippine Agta men in one region have been attacked by Reticulated Pythons, with 6 deaths resulting. Please see this article for details.

Giant Snake Diets

Samantha proved quite calm as compared to other adult, wild-caught Retics I’ve worked with. Her diet was comprised of 25-30 pound pigs, one of which she consumed each 4-6 weeks. She was certainly capable of taking larger meals, but remained in good health on this feeding regime. At her death in November of 2002, Samantha measured 26 feet in length and tipped the scales at 275 pounds.

The largest snake meal I’ve witnessed was a 60 pound White-Tailed Deer taken by a wild Green Anaconda in Venezuela. I’ve observed and read about many others…please see this article, and post your own experiences below.

Other Giants

The internet is stocked with claims of giant snake sightings, but many border on the ridiculous…and cross that border! However, there are a few legitimate giants in zoos and private collections, including several that are well known by “first name” to snake fans – “Fluffy” and “Marcy” are especially popular.

Clifford Pope’s 1961 classic, The Giant Snakes, is a great resource for snake enthusiasts. His photo of the massive “Colossus” inspired many herpetologists of my generation.

What’s Next?

The Bronx Zoo’s $50,000 reward has been withdrawn, but I like to think that a 30-foot-long Anaconda or Retic is lurking somewhere even as I write these words. Please let me know your thoughts on this prospect, and I’d love to hear any stories, rumors or experiences you may have.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Boa Constrictors and their Relatives – Natural History and Captive Care

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 16 Oct 2012 20:34:39 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. The 53 species in the family Boidae are an amazingly diverse group of snakes that have colonized habitats ranging from rainforests to deserts, in countries as diverse as Canada and India. Among them we find treetop dwellers, aquatic species, confirmed burrowers and generalists equally at home in farmland, savannas, desert fringes and forests. I’ve had the good fortune of studying Anacondas, Rosy Boas and others in the wild, and remain fascinated by all. Please be sure to post some thoughts about your favorites below.

Classification and Terminology

The family Boidae is divided into 3 subfamilies. Most boas are placed in the subfamily Boinae. The ten Sand Boas of southern Europe, Africa and Asia, the Calabar Ground “Python” and North America’s Rubber and Rosy Boas are classified in the subfamily Erycinae. Ungaliophiinae is comprised of the Oaxacan, Isthmian and Panamanian Dwarf Boas.

The term “boa” usually refers to the Common Boa. A short “first name” is applied to others, i.e. Rough-Scaled Boa, Rainbow Boa, Malagasy Tree Boa, Pacific Boa.

Size

Many species average 2-5 feet in length, but the Common Boa Constrictor, can exceed 13 feet in length. The family giant, the Green Anaconda, is also the world’s heaviest snake.

The record-sized Common Boa is said an 18.5 foot specimen killed on Trinidad in 1944. However, a recent investigation into the incident established that an Anaconda, and not a Common Boa, was described in the original account (please see this article for details). The longest individuals I’m aware of were taken in Surinam, and measured 13 feet, 6 inches and 14 feet.

Range

Boas reach their greatest diversity in that portion of the American tropics stretching from central Mexico to Argentina. Rosy Boas range into the southwestern USA; Africa, Asia and the South Pacific are home to numerous others. Two species live in “unexpected” places – the Rubber Boa reaches southern Canada and the Javelin Boa inhabits Greece and the Balkans.

Note: The following information can be applied to many pet trade species. However, details will vary. Please see my species-specific articles and also post a comment below if you would like further information.

Behavior

Rosy and Common Boas vary widely in personality, with many being calm and well-suited to captive life, while arboreal species may remain high-strung and “snappy”.

Boas are not domesticated animals and must never be handled carelessly, as even long-term pets may react to scents or vibrations that people do not perceive. Bite wounds can be severe. Two experienced adults should always be on hand when specimens over 6 feet in length are fed, cleaned or moved.

Housing

Setting up the Terrarium

Hatchlings may be started-off in 10 gallon aquariums. Larger species usually require custom-built cages, but some, such as Sand, Dwarf and Rosy Boas, can be accommodated in a 30-55 gallon tank. The screen top must be secured with clips.

Appropriate cage furnishings will vary by species. For example, Rubber Boas need to burrow while Cook’s Tree Boas require stout branches on which to perch. A hide box should always be available for terrestrial species; hanging plastic plants will provide security for tree-dwellers. Sand Boas and other fossorial species must be provided with substrate that allows them to burrow out of sight. Being forced to remain in the open is stressful, even for long-term pets.

Substrate

Newspapers and washable terrarium liners may be used as substrates for terrestrial boas. Sand Boas and other burrowers must be provided a deep substrate, the nature of which varies by species; please post questions below.

Cypress and aspen bedding lend a naturalistic touch, and are especially good for Emerald Tree Boas and others requiring humid surroundings. However, wood chips can lodge in the mouth during feeding; terrestrial species should be moved to bare-bottomed enclosures at feeding time.

Light

Boas do not require UVB light, but may benefit from the provision of a UVA bulbs.

Heat

Temperature should be maintained at a range of 79-88 F for most species. Incandescent bulbs may be used to create a basking site of 90-95 F. Ceramic heaters or red/black reptile “night bulbs” may be employed to provide heat after dark and will also help you to observe your pet’s nocturnal activities. Under-tank heaters should be used to create a warm basking surface for Sand and Rubber Boas (these heaters do little to warm air, however).

Provide your snake with the largest home possible, so that a thermal gradient (areas of different temperatures) can be established. Thermal gradients, critical to good health, allow reptiles to regulate their body temperature by moving between hot and cooler areas. In small enclosures, the entire area soon takes on the basking site temperature.

Humidity

Rainforest species generally favor humidity levels of 65-75%, but must be able to dry off as well. The terrarium should be misted twice daily. Airflow is also important, so the screen top should not be covered-over to increase humidity levels.

Sand Boas and other desert dwellers must be kept dry.

Feeding

Most species accept pre-killed mice and rats; hatchlings can handle pink or fuzzy mice. However, the youngsters of smaller species often prefer lizards and frogs, and must be coaxed into accepting rodents. Rubbing a natural prey item over a rodent (“scenting”) will often induce feeding. Emerald Tree Boas and other arboreal species may favor chicks, but will usually accept scented rodents. Gerbils, guinea pigs and other rodents may tempt reluctant feeders, but snakes may then refuse other food items.

Several Brazilian Rainbow Boas under my care would go through “phases” – refusing rats but taking mice, and vice-versa. Green Anacondas, which I do not recommend for private collections, can be notoriously “picky”, with ducks being a favorite. I recall one that would accept only muskrats, while another took wild but not lab-raised Norway rats.

In the wild, boas do not feed during the breeding season or when temperatures are unfavorable; captives may refuse food in the winter, even if kept warm.

Hatchlings should be fed once weekly; adults do fine with a meal each 10-14 days. Vitamin/mineral supplements are not necessary if whole animals are provided.

Water should always be available. Bowls should be filled to a point where they will not overflow when the snake curls up within. Arboreal boas arrange their coils in a way that traps rain and dew, and prefer to drink water sprayed onto their bodies; most adjust to water bowls in time.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Green Anaconda Relatives – Bolivian, Dark-Spotted and Yellow Anacondas

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 13 Sep 2012 20:35:46 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. The massive Green Anaconda (Eunectes murinus) is one of the world’s best-known snakes. I had the good fortune of participating in the first long-term study of this species in the wild (please see this article), and zoos have kept and bred them for decades. But its relatives, despite being large, impressive creatures, have not been well studied. One, the Bolivian Anaconda (E. beniensis), was only described in 2002, and its natural history remains shrouded in mystery; we know only a bit more about the Dark-Spotted Anaconda (E. deschauenseei). The Yellow Anaconda (E. notaeus) regularly appears in zoos and the pet trade, but field studies are lacking.

Dark-Spotted or De Schauensee’s Anaconda, Eunectes deschauenseei

Although described as a distinct species back in 1936, the habits of the Dark-Spotted Anaconda remain unstudied, and it rarely appears in public collections. While working with Green Anacondas in Venezuela, I tried to arrange a side trip to an area where they were reported to live, but was unable to arrange it. A review of the acquisition records at the Bronx Zoo, where I worked for many years, revealed that several specimens were believed to be this species, but none were definitely identified as such. I recently poked around among stored Green Anacondas in the collection of the American Museum of Natural History (courtesy of a colleague there) and hope to return to check on Dark-Spotted Anacondas. Although widely separated in range from the Yellow Anaconda, many taxonomists hold that the two are closely related.

The Dark-Spotted Anaconda is found in French Guiana and the states of Para and Amapa in northeastern Brazil, and possibly in Suriname. In common with other anacondas, it is highly aquatic and favors densely-vegetated waters that are difficult to survey. Therefore, we may not know the exact extent of its range. Having spent hours trying to find huge Green Anacondas in small pools of water, I can well-imagine that we have more to learn about the range of this elusive reptile.

Females likely top out at approximately 10 feet in length, but surprises could be in store for us. Like its relatives, the Dark-Spotted Anaconda has a wide appetite…fish, mammals, lizards and wading birds have been reported in its diet.

The IUCN lists this species as “data deficient”, and has not accessed its status. In areas where seasonally-flooded grasslands form the primary habitat, it is likely threatened by agricultural expansion. Populations living in swamps may be more secure.

Bolivian or Beni Anaconda, Eunectes beniensis

The Bolivian Anaconda is hunted for its skin and meat, and in some areas is killed as a threat to chickens and other domestic animals. However, as much of its habitat is sparsely populated and difficult to develop, the IUCN lists this species as “least concern”.

Yellow Anaconda, Eunectes notaeus

The Yellow Anaconda, first described in 1862, ranges from southeastern Bolivia through Paraguay, Uruguay, western Brazil and northeastern Argentina. At 10-12 feet in average length, with some females approaching 15 feet, it is the largest of the “other anacondas”. Those I’ve handled have been stoutly-built, although not, it seemed, to the same degree of their larger cousin, the Green Anaconda.

The Yellow Anaconda dwells in the same habitat types as the Green, and like it is also an ambush predator. Other similarities include the formation of mating balls during the breeding season and a taste for a wide variety of creatures…birds and their eggs, fish, lizards, caiman, capybaras, pacas, brocket deer and a host of other animals have been recorded as prey.

Green Anaconda, Eunectes murinus

I’ve captured and tagged some very large Green Anacondas, and have had the chance to observe mating, deer predation, “human stalking” and scores of other fascinating behaviors. Please see this article and those linked above and below to learn more about this secretive giant

Titanoboa, the Largest Known Snake

Today’s anacondas are very impressive, but they pale in comparison to Titanoboa cerrejonensis, an extinct look-alike that measured at least 43 feet in length and weighed in at over a ton! Please see this article for further information.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Rosy Boa and Sand Boa Captive Care and Natural History

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 27 Jun 2012 14:24:22 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. The Rosy Boa (Lichanura trivirgata) and several of the Sand Boas (Eryx spp.) are among the most unique of the 53 species in the family Boidae. They are excellent choices for both beginning and advanced keepers, especially those with limited space. Stoutly-built but averaging only 24-30 inches in length, these “big snakes in a small package” are hardy, relatively easy to handle and breed, and adapt well to small enclosures.

Natural History

Rosy and Sand Boas have made similar adaptations to their environments, but live on opposite sides of the globe – a phenomenon known as convergent evolution. Both are highly-specialized burrowers, spending most of their time below-ground in warm, dry habitats. Along with the equally-unusual Rubber Boa (Charina bottae) and African Burrowing “Python” (Calabaria reinhardtii), they are classified in the subfamily Erycinae.

Rosy Boa

Many people associate boas with humid forests, but the Rosy Boa inhabits deserts and arid scrubland from Southern California through southwestern Arizona to Baja California and Sonora, Mexico. Three subspecies are known.

Many are blue-gray and attractively marked with 3 stripes of pinkish-orange or reddish brown, but natural variations are seemingly endless. Several individuals that I encountered while studying insects in Baja California, Mexico stand out as being among the most beautiful snakes I’ve seen. A number of unique color strains, ranging from black through orange-striped to white, have been developed by hobbyists.

The Sand Boas

Twelve species of Sand Boa make their homes in deserts and arid scrub habitats in Africa, South Asia and the Middle East. The Egyptian and Kenyan Sand Boas (Eryx colubrinus loveridgei and E. c. colubrinus), are the most commonly-kept species. Both average less than 2 feet in length and are attractively patterned, with the Kenyan being particularly bright in color. The Indian Sand Boa (Eryx johnii), which may exceed 3 feet in length, is not commonly seen in US collections.

Sand Boas are highly-specialized ambush predators that wait below the substrate for passing rodents and lizards. To assist is this hunting strategy, the eyes and nostrils are placed high on the head. Captives will explode from their hiding places to snatch small mice moved about with a feeding tong…very impressive!

Handling

Both species are generally inoffensive, although their smooth, glossy scales may render handling a bit tricky.

Rosy Boas are often content to be held, and tend to hide their heads when frightened. Sand Boas, however, usually become stressed when removed from their subterranean hideaways.

Sand Boas have an ingrained feeding response that often causes them to strike if touched while buried, so care should be taken when working in their terrariums (touching the body with a small mouse held via tongs may tempt a reluctant feeder).

Housing

Setting up the Terrarium

The 8-12 inch-long youngsters may be housed in a 10 gallon aquarium. Adults and pairs can be accommodated in 20-30 gallon tanks. The screen top must be secured with clips or locks.

Rosy and Sand Boas are naturally secretive; being forced to remain in the open is a stressful experience, even for long-term pets.

Substrate

Sand Boas must be given a deep substrate of smooth-grained sand in which to burrow. As security is provided by the feeling of contact with the substrate, cave-type retreats will not suffice. Some individuals will burrow beneath a piece of glass laid atop the sand, and so may be easily observed.

A mix of smooth sand and aspen bedding works well for Rosy Boas. They will use cork bark or plastic caves as shelters, but most prefer a half-buried section of PVC pipe.

Light

Boas do not require exposure to UVB light. A day: night cycle of 12:12 hours can be used year-round, but shortening the day-length and lowering the temperature during winter will stimulate breeding. Please see the articles below for further information on breeding.

Heat

The ambient temperature of 78-85 F is ideal. An incandescent bulb should be used to create a basking spot of 90-95 F. Heat pads placed below the aquarium work well for Sand Boas, which rarely if ever emerge to bask. Heat pads do not effectively warm the air, and so should be used in conjunction with a bulb.

Large enclosures will enable you to establish a thermal gradient (areas of different temperatures). Thermal gradients, critical to good health, allow snakes to regulate their body temperatures by moving from hot to cooler areas.

A red or black reptile night bulb may be employed to provide heat after dark and will also enable you to view your pet’s nocturnal activities; ceramic bulbs are also useful for night-time heating.

Humidity

Rosy and Sand Boas must be kept dry, as skin and respiratory disorders develop rapidly in damp conditions.

Water bowls should be filled to a point where they will not overflow if the snake curls up within, and must be tip-proof. Rosy and Sand Boas under my care did fine when given access to water bowls for a few hours, 2-3 times weekly.

Feeding

Rosy and Sand Boas readily accept pre-killed fuzzies or small mice; hatchlings can usually handle pinkies. Sand Boas will explode from beneath the substrate in response to a meal wiggled about via feeding tongs.

Both species have rather small heads (wedge-shaped in the Sand Boa, to assist in burrowing) and their jaws are not well-suited to swallowing large meals. Fuzzies and young mice are preferable to adult mice.

Hatchlings should be fed once weekly, adults each 10-14 days. Vitamin and mineral supplements are not necessary.

Similar Species

Mexican Dwarf Pythons (Loxocemus bicolor) and Calabar Ground or African Burrowing Pythons (Calabaria reinhardtii) share many traits with Rosy and Sand Boas. Please see this article for further information on keeping these unusual fossorial snakes.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Anaconda Attacks – Notes from a Study of Wild Snakes in Venezuela

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 11 Apr 2012 21:00:13 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Green Anacondas (Eunectes murinus) and other giant constrictors inspire tall tales among those not well-acquainted with them, and respect in those who are. African Rock and Reticulated Pythons have taken humans as prey (please see this article), and Burmese Pythons have caused fatalities, but information concerning Green Anaconda attacks is sketchy. Their aquatic lifestyle and tendency to inhabit sparsely-populated areas renders it difficult to discern fact from fiction. Today I’d like to provide some personal observations drawn from my time working with Anacondas in the field.

Tagging Wild Anacondas – a Herper’s Dream Job

In the mid 1990’s, while working for the Bronx Zoo, I had the good fortune of participating in a long-term field study of Green Anacondas in Venezuela – the first and only one of its kind. Over 900 specimens were captured, and a treasure-trove of new facts was documented.

Attempted Human Predation?

Two incidents that occurred during the study indicated that Green Anacondas may view humans as a potential meal. A co-worker of mine was grabbed near the knee by a large female while walking in shallow, densely-vegetated water. The snake bit her pants, which tore, and then struck again, higher this time. Fortunately, the strike did not connect, and my co-worked escaped unharmed.

The researcher involved was well-experienced in finding Anacondas by shuffling about in likely areas, and certainly would have noticed a large snake had she stepped on it. Therefore, I doubt that the snake’s strike was in response to being disturbed. In any event, all other snakes uncovered in this manner tried to escape. I believe that the attack was predatory in nature.

My notes indicate that, at a later date, the same snake (all were marked) rose to the surface and, for want of a better word, “watched” researchers who were poking about nearby. Perhaps she was an especially bold individual…

In the second incident, an Anaconda’s head appeared behind a researcher who was walking among floating aquatic vegetation. The snake reared up and followed the man for several feet while tongue-flicking. A co-worker noticed and grabbed the snake as it struck, causing the animal to miss her (males, the smaller sex, would be unlikely to tackle such large prey) intended target. Due to the “stalking” aspect of this incident, we can rule out defense as a motive.

Are People on the Anaconda’s Menu?

Anaconda attacks have been researched in several books and articles (the events above are recorded in Rivas, J. A. 1999. Life history of the green anaconda. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee).

Several incidents described in Tales of Giant Snakes (Murphy & Henderson, Krieger: 1997) parallel those above, and may involve attempted human predation (the photo on the cover of this book, not well-chosen in my opinion but quite dramatic, was taken during the study in which I assisted).

In his wonderful book Snakes, the Evolution of Mystery in Nature (U. of CA Press: 1997) Harry Greene does not cite any incidents of Anacondas preying upon people.

Clifford Pope’s classic, The Giant Snakes (Alfred Knopf, NY: 1965) recounts several interesting Anaconda encounters, including one wherein a woman battled a 19-footer in order to save a duck, but concludes that all involved defensive actions. Incidentally, Mike Tsalkis is mentioned in The Giant Snakes – older herp enthusiasts will remember the dramatic photos of him wrestling an Anaconda in the 1960’s Life Nature Series book The Land and Wildlife of South America – it’s as clear in my mind today as when I first saw it!

Defensive Attacks

Most snakes will attempt to bite when attacked, and Green Anacondas are particularly vigorous in this regard. I was on hand when the study’s largest snake was found. We stumbled (literally!) upon the 17-foot-long, 215-pounder in a shallow pool that also held another individual nearly as large.

As I groped about below the water, her massive head reared up next to my face. I deflected the strike and grabbed her neck, but was bitten in the process. The tooth that lodged in my wrist as a result remains there today (it is close to a nerve, and not worth removing); other than a bad infection (in me, not the snake!), the “souvenir” has caused no problems.

A large female that we cornered in a riverside hollow seemed to access her options for a time and then charged. She may have come at us open-mouthed, but all happened so quickly that it was hard to tell. She made it through our “line”, but we tracked her progress in the river and captured her shortly thereafter.

Green Anaconda Diets

Captive Anacondas are notorious for being “picky” feeders. Various individuals under my care have refused all but muskrats, ducks or wild-caught Norway Rats.

As a species, however, they take an amazingly range of prey. Meals I’ve observed included, among other animals, a 60 pound deer, Spectacled Caimans, a large side-necked turtle, a Red-Footed Tortoise, wading birds, fish and other Anacondas. Please watch for my future article on this topic.

The World’s Largest Snake

The extinct, Anaconda-like Titanoboa may have reached 43 feet in length and weighed in excess of a ton! The Smithsonian Channel will soon air a special on this incredible beast. Please see this article and video to learn more.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Snake Hunting with Romulus Whitaker – Learning from the Master

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 23 Mar 2012 15:01:44 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. A life engrossed in herpetology has provided me with more adventures than I dared expect. From tagging Leatherback Turtles in St. Croix to heaving Green Anacondas from a Venezuelan swamp, I’ve been quite fortunate. But I’ve always known that natural wonders are also plentiful close at hand. In fact, one of my most exciting herping trips took place in a NYC suburb.

Note: I’d enjoy hearing about your own unforgettable (and “wish you could forget”!) herping experiences. Whether your tales involve garter snakes in the backyard or crocodile monitors in New Guinea, please write in so that I can share them with other readers, thanks.

Turtle Enthusiasts Gather at SUNY Purchase

In July of 1993, I attended an amazing, week-long international conference held in Westchester County, NY – The Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles. Hosted by the dedicated folks at the NY Turtle and Tortoise Society, this gathering of leading professionals and serious hobbyists has, in my experience, yet to be matched. The 500-page conference proceedings are an invaluable resource, and I highly recommend them to anyone with more than a passing interest in turtles and tortoises. You can order the proceedings, for the unbelievable price of $20, here.

Romulus Whitaker

Romulus Whitaker, one of the world’s foremost herpetologists, was in attendance as a speaker. Although most often associated with his work in India, Mr. Whitaker actually grew up in NYC; I had long been in awe of the accomplishments of my fellow New Yorker. At the time, I was a reptile keeper at the Bronx Zoo, working with Indian Gharials that had hatched at the Madras Crocodile Bank, founded by Mr. Whitaker. Curiously, the Gharials went off feed for 5 months each year, despite being kept warm, yet remained active and lost little weight.

I introduced myself to Mr. Whitaker, and right away found that he lived up to his reputation as a pleasant soul, always willing to share his expertise. We spoke often over the next few days, and I learned a great deal about Gharials, Painted Terrapins, Giant River Turtles, Narrow-Headed Softshells and other South Asian reptiles that I cared for (the Gharials, I discovered, were responding to an internal “clock” that informed them it was winter in their native land).

Snake Hunting with a Legend

Towards the end of the conference, Mr. Whitaker asked if I might take him to a spot where he could see some native NY snakes…those that first inspired his interest as a child. It happened that we were in the middle of a hot, dry spell at the time and, what’s more, I wasn’t very familiar with the surrounding area. So there I was, about to go snake hunting with Romulus Whitaker at a time when I’d be lucky to find a Brown Snake!

I made some frantic calls to local contacts and learned that Ward Pound Ridge Reservation would be my best option. I had previously been involved in salamander research there, and was relieved to recall that this largest of Westchester’s preserved areas was something of a herp haven, despite being so close to NYC.

All herpers (or birders, or naturalists of any sort) soon learn that animals rarely if ever show up when you wish, or do what “is expected of them”. But, as is true with of all with a passion for reptiles, Mr. Whitaker showed almost child-like excitement at the prospect of finding even the commonest of snakes. Buoyed by his enthusiasm, I resolved to do my best.

Was I in for a surprise! In quick succession, we found Black Ratsnakes, Black Racers, Eastern Garter Snakes, Northern Watersnakes, Brown Snakes and Northern Red-Bellied Snakes; the most productive near-city trip of my life. Even more surprising, given that we were in a dry spell in mid-July, was the discovery of Dusky, Red-Backed and Slimy Salamanders, and Eastern Spotted Newts. A number of interesting spiders rounded out the day. (Note: all animals were released).

Wonderful Encounters, Near and Far

I’m rarely superstitious, but I believe that the man was truly charmed! It was such a pleasure to see him in action…despite being at the pinnacle of his profession, he was as thrilled to be in the field as my 4-year-old nephew is today. I knew of Mr. Whitaker’s reputation for speed and agility, but was still surprised at how good he was at catching even sun-warmed Black Racers. He leapt headlong into thick cover in his pursuits, and rarely came up empty handed. Although younger, in very good shape, and well-experienced, I was not at all in his class…I’m sure the same remains true today!

What a day, and what a conference. Soon after, Mr. Whitaker departed to begin work with nesting King Cobras in India, and I was off to tag Green Anacondas in Venezuela (please see articles below). But, looking back, I see that we enjoyed our time at Ward Pound Ridge just as much as those “exotic” adventures. We herpers are indeed a lucky bunch…the world, near and far, holds so much of interest for us. I look forward to hearing about your own trips and observations.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

That Reptile Blog » Non-venomous Snakes

Venomous Pythons? – Snakebite Victims Benefit from New Research

Python Venom

Implications for Snakebite Victims

Famous Herpetologists Killed by “Harmless Snakes”

Other Dangerous Colubrid Snakes

Further Reading

St. Lucia Racer, World’s Rarest Snake (Population 11) is Rediscovered

“Hello Mongooses…Goodbye Snakes”

A Species Resurfaces

St. Lucia’s Other Reptiles and Amphibians

Another Caribbean Rarity

Further Reading

Snake Conservation in 2013 – The “Year of the Snake” Begins

The Year of the Snake…your input needed

Threats

Year of the Snake Programs

What’s Next…What can I Do?

Further Reading

Round Island Boa Reintroduction – Back in Wild after a 150-Year Absence

Status and Conservation

The Reintroduction

Round Island Boa Natural History

What’s Next?

Further Reading

World’s Largest Snake – Finding and Keeping a Giant Reticulated Python

Wanted: 30 Foot-Long-Snake

Meeting a Giant

Wrestling With a Giant (and losing!)

Human-Python Interactions

Giant Snake Diets

Other Giants

What’s Next?

Further Reading

Boa Constrictors and their Relatives – Natural History and Captive Care

Classification and Terminology

Size

Range

Behavior

Housing

Feeding

Further Reading

Green Anaconda Relatives – Bolivian, Dark-Spotted and Yellow Anacondas

Dark-Spotted or De Schauensee’s Anaconda, Eunectes deschauenseei

Bolivian or Beni Anaconda, Eunectes beniensis

Yellow Anaconda, Eunectes notaeus

Green Anaconda, Eunectes murinus

Titanoboa, the Largest Known Snake

Further Reading

Rosy Boa and Sand Boa Captive Care and Natural History

Natural History

Rosy Boa

The Sand Boas

Handling

Housing

Feeding

Similar Species

Further Reading

Anaconda Attacks – Notes from a Study of Wild Snakes in Venezuela

Tagging Wild Anacondas – a Herper’s Dream Job

Attempted Human Predation?

Are People on the Anaconda’s Menu?

Defensive Attacks

Green Anaconda Diets

The World’s Largest Snake

Further Reading

Snake Hunting with Romulus Whitaker – Learning from the Master

Turtle Enthusiasts Gather at SUNY Purchase

Romulus Whitaker

Snake Hunting with a Legend

Wonderful Encounters, Near and Far

Further Reading