That Reptile Blog » Diseases

The Best Terrarium Cleaning Products and Methods

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 01 Apr 2013 16:01:31 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. During a long career zoo career that found me working with animals ranging from ants to elephants, I’ve had many occasions to review veterinary and pathology reports. In doing so, I’ve come to understand that zoonotic diseases – those that can pass from animals to people – are a potential concern in the keeping of any pet. Most people associate Salmonella, the best known zoonotic, with reptiles, but nearly any animal, including dogs, cats and birds, may harbor this bacterium. Fortunately, Salmonella and other infections can be avoided by following a few relatively simple rules.

Note: This article is not meant to replace a doctor’s advice, nor is it intended to discourage pet ownership. By observing a few simple precautions, the most commonly-encountered problems can be effectively managed. Please post your questions and concerns below, and be sure to consult your doctor or veterinarian for specific information concerning disease prevention and treatment.

What Are the Risks?

Uploaded to Wikipedia by Jens Raschendorf.

If we are to safely enjoy our pets, it is important that we become aware of the concerns while maintaining a reasonable perspective.

For example, while it is true that Salmonella bacteria are likely present in all reptile and amphibian digestive tracts, merely handling an animal that carries Salmonella will not cause an infection. Salmonella bacteria are harmful to people only if ingested. Consider also that dogs may potentially carry at least 17 harmful microorganisms, yet the vast majority of dog owners are never troubled by health problems. Similarly, the same can be said of reptile owners, zookeepers and herpetologists – Salmonella infections are not typical.

Please see this article for information concerning Mycobacteria.

How Infections Are Contracted

Understanding how bacteria are transferred from animals to people is the key to avoiding Salmonella infections. Salmonella bacteria are shed in the feces and can live on counters, tools, food bowls, animal skin and other surfaces for several days.

Reptile skin, water bowls, terrarium substrates and other surfaces may harbor bacteria that have been shed in feces. People can become infected and/or spread the bacteria to others if they handle a reptile (or its cage, etc.) and then eat or touch surfaces that come in contact with food before washing properly.

Basic Rules

Always wash your hands with hot, soapy water after handling animals and tools used to service aquariums or terrariums, and after being in an area where animals are allowed to roam free.

Stop working with your pets if you receive a cut or break in the skin. Exposing a wound to terrarium or aquarium water after applying an antibiotic will negate the value of the medicine. Seek a doctor’s advice.

Wear gloves or use a substrate scooper when cleaning animal enclosures. Disposable gloves, available in pharmacies, are fine for most terrariums. Coralife Aqua Gloves, which reach to the elbow, are very useful for aquarium work. Wear goggles if splashing water is a concern.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by , LiquidGhoul.

Reptiles should not be allowed into kitchens, dining rooms or other areas where food is prepared or eaten. Bathroom sinks and tubs, and areas where infants are bathed, should also be off-limits.

Reptiles should not be allowed to roam about the home (this presents a fire hazard as well). If it is necessary to keep a reptile un-caged, it should be confined to an easily-cleaned room from which human food and at-risk individuals (small children and elderly or immune-compromised individuals) are excluded.

Terrariums, aquariums, food bowls and other animal-related items should not be cleaned in kitchen or bathroom sinks. A plastic tub should be used if a basement or “animal-only” sink is not available. Rinse water and fecal material should be disposed of in a toilet, not a sink or tub. Clean accidental spills with a product that contains bleach.

Never start a siphon by sucking on its end with your mouth. Always fill it with water to create suction or use a hand-operated siphon starter.

Do not drink, eat or smoke while working with animals. Never kiss your pet or feed it from bowls used for your own meals.

The Center for Disease Control guidelinescontain additional precautions. Please review them carefully.

Cleaning Terrariums, Aquariums and Related Items

Reptile enclosures, food bowls and the like should be cleaned with Nolvasan, a reptile-safe commercial cleaner, or a bleach solution (1 cup bleach per gallon of water). Zoo Med Wipe Out Terrarium Cleaner kills a wide range of commonly-encountered bacteria, including Salmonella and Pseudomonas.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Pedro Reina.

Amphibians, invertebrates and fishes are especially sensitive to chemicals. Their terrariums and aquariums should be cleaned with fish-safe products or with the bleach solution described above.

Cleaning implements should be soaked in any of the aforementioned cleaners before being re-used. Be sure to remove feces and other organic material before soaking. Rinse the tools well after removal from the soak solution. Immersion in water containing an instant de-chlorinator is recommended for hard-to-clean items (i.e. siphon and filter tubes) that are to be used with fishes or amphibians.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Amphibian Declines – Pollution Worsens Disease and Parasite Attacks

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 22 Oct 2012 16:00:13 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In 1990, the IUCN’s Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force, to which I belonged, was one of the few large scale efforts addressing what is now known as the “Disappearing Amphibian Crisis”. Today, with legions of biologists and hobbyists at work on the problem, we still do not fully understand why nearly 200 species have become extinct in the last 20 years – a rate 200x that of what might be “expected”. But we do have some insights, one of which was highlighted in a recent journal article (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (Biology) . It appears that stress, much of which is in response to what we are doing to amphibian habitats, is worsening the effects of normal pathogens and diseases.

Parasites and Insecticides: a Confusing Scenario

As the reality of worldwide amphibian declines became apparent, herpetologists and private citizens began noticing increasing numbers of deformed and dead frogs. In 1995, school children in Minnesota made headlines when they found dozens of deformed frogs in a local pond. Since several chemicals are known to cause growth abnormalities, researchers began focusing on pollutants. At the Bronx Zoo, I worked with a veterinarian who studied African Clawed Frogs, and was amazed to see ovaries develop in males that had been exposed to Atrazine (a common insecticide).

But pollutants turned out not to be the whole story…a parasite also played a role. The creature involved needs to infect both a frog and a wading bird in order to complete its life cycle. Amazingly, it lives within a tadpole for a time and “re-programs” the development of the hind legs as metamorphosis occurs. The newly-transformed frog develops extra rear legs and, unable to jump very well, is likely to be caught by a heron – just as the parasite “intended”!

Actually, many parasites cause incredible changes in their hosts’ behaviors – one “directs” an ant to climb into the canopy and raise its now red-colored abdomen skyward in imitation of a tasty berry (so that it is eaten by the next essential host, a bird), another causes the host spider to build a silken shelter before dying, so that the parasite has a safe place in which to emerge, and so on…

Are Pathogens Changing?

Amphibians evolved some 300-400 million years ago, long before the dinosaurs, and they’ve likely been battling parasites similar to those described above for much of that time. The same can be said of other fungi, bacteria and viruses that attack them.

Yet it seems that certain pathogens and diseases, despite being around for centuries, are now causing unprecedented amphibian population declines and extinctions. For example, Chytrid fungus, first identified as a serious threat in 1999, may be responsible for the disappearance of nearly 200 species. Although termed an “emerging disease”, it was likely present all along, but is now spreading more rapidly, and having a more devastating effect on its victims. This trend is seen among frogs worldwide (salamanders and caecilians are not as well-studied) – many pathogens are more common now than in years past, are spreading to new habitats, and are causing unusually high mortality rates.

The Role of Stress

According to the article referenced above, multiple stresses may be weakening amphibian immune systems, rendering them unable to battle common illnesses. We see this in captivity all the time – animals that are assailed by inappropriate temperatures, hostile tank-mates or poor diets often fall victim to parasites and diseases that would have been handled by the immune system had conditions been ideal.

One stress factor can depress the immune system (in zoos, birds moved to a new exhibit often succumb to Aspergillosus infections, an ever-present fungus that typically causes no problems). Currently, many amphibians are exposed to pollution, climate change, introduced species, habitat fragmentation and other stressors simultaneously. Small wonder that at least 2,500 species are believed to be in decline.

Permeable skins that allow for the passage of harmful chemicals, and the typical need for two distinct habitats, predispose amphibians to difficulties when environmental changes occur. However, there is evidence that similar processes are at work among other groups as well (please see this article on snake declines).

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

Please be on the alert for deformed amphibians and signs of population declines, and post your observations here. I can help you to get the information to organizations that can put it to good use. Also, a colleague of mine is now involved in Amphibian Ark, a fine conservation group which can provide guidance if need be.

Please see the articles linked below for information on IUCN surveys and other efforts that utilize volunteers.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Bearded Dragon Health – Atadenovirus (Wasting Disease, Star-Gazing)

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 28 Aug 2012 15:14:59 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Bearded Dragons are among the hardiest of all lizards, and very well-suited to captivity. However, a serious viral disease to which they are prone is well-established among populations in theUSA and several other countries. Unfortunately, Atadenovirus infections, also known as Wasting Disease and Star Gazing, are incurable and difficult to detect by symptoms alone. Related viruses afflict Blue-Tongued Skinks, Fat-Tailed Geckos, Leopard Geckos, chameleons and other reptiles, birds and mammals, but infections are most commonly diagnosed in Bearded Dragons.

Infection and Transmission

Atadenoviruses are highly contagious, and spread via body contact and improperly cleaned tools or terrarium accessories. Female Bearded Dragons may also pass infections along to their young. There is evidence that some Bearded Dragons harbor the virus while remaining otherwise healthy, and that sensitivity varies among individuals that do become ill.

Testing

Atadenovirus is easily detected via DNA analysis of a cloacal swab. Due to the possibility that Bearded Dragons may appear fine while harboring the virus, testing should be considered for newly-acquired animals. This is, of course, especially important to those who breed Bearded Dragons or keep large collections.

Symptoms

Detection via symptoms alone is difficult, because individual animals vary greatly in their responses to Atadenovirus infection. Also, the most common symptoms – weight loss, loose stools/constipation, lethargy and swellings – are typical of a great many unrelated ailments. Lethargy is especially confusing, as some Bearded Dragons enter a state of semi-dormancy during the winter, even if kept warm. Bearded Dragon owners often write me with this concern, but, unfortunately, I must respond that there is no sure way to distinguish dormancy from Atadenovirus without a DNA test (please see article below).

If the virus progresses to the nervous system, the lizard may exhibit more definitive symptoms, such as tail tip and toe twitching. The Star Gazing moniker arises from the arching position (head and tail pointing upwards; please see photos here) adopted by some individuals with nervous system involvement. Atadenovirus infections may also weaken the immune system, as victims often become ill from bacteria, intestinal parasites and other seemingly unrelated micro-organisms. Organ damage has also been reported.

Due to their size and secretive ways, young Bearded Dragons present an especially difficult problem, with infected animals often dying for no apparent reason. Hatchlings and youngsters that fail to gain weight and are inactive (taking normal variability into account) should be checked for Atadenovirus.

Treatment

Unfortunately, we currently have no drugs capable of eliminating Atadenovirus from Bearded Dragons. Treatment typically consists of supporting the immune system through antibiotics (to kill off other micro-organisms), nutrition and supplements. Especially resilient individuals may suffer occasional severe reactions, during which time treatment is helpful, but live otherwise normal lives. In general, however, Atadenovirus infections are fatal; an experienced veterinarian should be consulted as to the best course of action.

Please write in if you need further information or assistance in locating a veterinarian.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Inclusion Body Disease or Stargazing – Pet Owners Aid Vital Research

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 22 Aug 2012 15:17:01 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Inclusion Body Disease (IBD), or “Stargazing”, is an incurable ailment that afflicts captive Boa Constrictors, Ball Pythons and related snakes (please see below for species list). As a child with a burgeoning snake collection, I was warned about it by older keepers, and then faced the perplexing condition as I began to work for animal importers and zoos. Always, the scenario remained the same – once symptoms appeared, the snake died. In zoo collections, much time and expense was spent in testing snakes that had been exposed to IBD, with euthanasia being the usual course of action for those found to be positive. However, snake keepers now have cause for guarded optimism – a ground-breaking finding published this week (August, 2012) may pave the way for a treatment. The sequence of events leading up to the discovery involves pet owners, gene-sequencing competitions and a host of twists and turns, and shows that alert, dedicated snake enthusiasts can make vital contributions to conservation and research.

History and Symptoms

Where IBD is concerned, confusion has long reigned supreme. Although described in the 1970’s, we did not know what pathogen (if any) was involved. In addition, many of IBD’s symptoms – appetite losses, regurgitation, shedding difficulties and opportunistic bacterial infections – are common to a host of unrelated ailments. The term “stargazing” was applied to the disease because victims often rear up and seemingly “stare” at the sky. Other unique symptoms include abnormal tongue flicking, loss of coordination, and paralysis. But the existence of these telltale signs of IBD did little to advance our understanding of it.

Species Affected

Boas are sometimes theorized to be the natural hosts for IBD, and asymptomatic carriers are not uncommon. According to this school of thought, IBD was not originally found in pythons, but was picked up after contact with sick boas. Once infected, pythons seem to expire quickly, and asymptomatic carriers are rare. However, we still have much to learn.

Since its identification, IBD has been isolated in a variety of species, including Common, Madagascan, Rainbow and Haitian Boas, Ball, Indian, Burmese, Reticulated, Diamond and Carpet Pythons, and Green and Yellow Anacondas.

IBD occurs worldwide but has never been found in wild populations. It is presumed to have spread via the sale and transport of zoo and pet animals.

A Newly-Discovered Virus

An article recently published in mBio, the online journal of the American Society of Microbiology, identifies, for the first time, the pathogen that causes IBD. Known as an arenavirus, this microorganism is related to that which causes Lassa Fever, an often human disease endemic toAfrica. Arenaviruses occur in a variety of mammals, but were previously unknown in snakes. The article’s authors were especially surprised to discover that IBD-infected snakes exhibited 2 distinct strains of arenavirus.

The newly-discovered viruses open up important areas of study. They differ markedly from related species, and resemble the Ebola Virus in appearance and in some manifestations of their infections.

Snakes have never been known to transfer an IBD-like infection to people, even after years of exposure (good news for this lifelong snake-keeper and career herpetologist!).

Solving the IBD Puzzle

As mentioned, this first break in the IBD mystery came about via a uniquely-contorted path that involved 3 specific snakes. Taryn Hook, a pet owner who had lost two snakes to IBD, suspected that a third animal was infected and consulted her veterinarian. The veterinarian had recently learned of a new virus-identification technique developed by researchers at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). Ms. Hook contacted Joseph DeRisi, one of the UCSF researchers, and asked his assistance. Dr. DeRisi had not worked on snake viruses, and put the letter aside. Months later, he found it and was inspired to contact Ms. Hook’s veterinarian. Sensing an important challenge, Dr. DeRisi began work on IBD.

Thereafter, a snake in the collection of the Steinhart Aquarium came down with IBD. Others at the institution were found to carry the disease, and were euthanized. The aquarium’s veterinarian learned of Dr. DeRisi’s work, and sent tissue samples to him.

Identifying the IBD pathogen required that the genome of a typical victim be sequenced. Fortunately, scientists at other University of California campuses were involved in a friendly genome sequencing competition (what will those geneticists think of next!). Spurred by the competitive spirit, they soon sequenced the Boa Constrictor genome. This development enabled the UCSF researchers to discover the unusual arenavirus responsible for IBD.

Detailed studies require a reliable supply of the newfound arenavirus. When a Boa Constrictor owned by cooperating veterinarian died of cancer, its kidneys were harvested as a source of cells. Soon, arenaviruses were happily growing in the lab, allowing for further research and, hopefully, more important breakthroughs.

The Future

Now that the IBD culprit has been identified, treatments and vaccines may be a possibility.

Additional research may lead to medical advances that will be of benefit to species prone to related pathogens. For example, other arenaviruses have been found in Rosy Boas, Gaboon Vipers, various Ratsnakes, Bearded Dragons, Savanna Monitors, Jackson’s Chameleons and other reptiles.

The Role of Pet Owners

I think an earlier comment on the importance of responsible pet ownership bears repeating. Had Ms. Hook not taken matters in hand and sought help from an unlikely source (Dr. DeRisi had discovered an unrelated parrot virus), IBD would likely still be shrouded in mystery. Keep alert and share what you learn…I for one am always eager to hear about your observations and ideas!

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.
Thanks, until next time,
Frank Indiviglio

Chorus Frogs and Chytrid Bacteria – a Look at the Confusing new Reports

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 20 Mar 2012 14:57:34 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Are Pacific Chorus Frogs, Pseudacris regilla, driving other amphibians to extinction? A recent study revealed that the tiny frogs often carry a fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, or Chytrid) that has been implicated in the extinction of 200+ amphibian species. Chorus Frogs seem largely immune to the disease, but may spread it to other species that share their habitat, including the endangered Mountain Yellow-Legged Frog, Rana mucosa. However, I believe there is more to the story…

Resilient Chytrid Carriers

Researchers from San Francisco State University and the San Diego Zoo have confirmed high levels of Chytrid fungus among Pacific Chorus Frogs in California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains. Unlike many amphibians, Chorus Frogs seem relatively unaffected by the fungus.

As Pacific Chorus Frogs have a huge natural range and readily colonize new habitats, it is feared that they will spread the highly contagious disease to other amphibians. In fact, Chorus frogs often live near Yellow-Legged Frogs, an endangered species that has suffered a 90% decline in numbers in recent years.

A Protective Bacterium

The study also indicates that bacteria on the skin of Chorus Frogs may help them to survive Chytrid infections. Upon reading this, I recalled earlier studies of a similar nature, and checked into the topic.

It seems that Chytrid-protective bacteria have also been isolated from the skin of Red-Backed Salamanders, Plethodon cinereus and Mountain Yellow-Legged Frogs (the endangered species mentioned above). I do not know whether the bacterium found on these 2 species – Janthinobacterium lividum – is the one that colonizes Chorus Frog skin.

An article in Scientific American (July 12, 2010), reported that J. lividum can be cultured in the lab, and that amphibians with the highest J. lividum populations on their skin had the greatest immunity to Chytrid infection. Wild Mountain Yellow-Legged Frogs were to be inoculated with the bacterium to see if immunities would develop. I’m looking into the status of this project, and will report any new findings in the future. Please see the article below for additional information.

Researchers in Central America are also studying frogs that were found alive after Chytrid swept through their habitats. Perhaps these rare survivors hold the key to understanding this devastating disease phenomenon.

Don’t Blame Chorus Frogs!

Before we cast too much “blame” on Pacific Chorus Frogs (African Clawed Frogs have been cast as Anuran “Typhoid Mary’s” as well), it should be noted that a host of other factors are likely at work. Pollution, climate change, habitat alteration and the like can weaken immune systems, rendering a species susceptible to Chytrid attack.

In fact, Yellow Legged Frogs are exposed to pollution, climate change and introduced predators (trout)…perhaps this partially explains why protective skin bacteria seem not to affect their survival when exposed to Chytrid.

Other Chytrid Concerns: Amphibians as Food and Bait

Three to four billion frogs are collected from the wild each year for the food trade…many more are likely not recorded. The USA, not a major consumer, imports 4.4 million pounds of live frogs annually. Shipping live frogs to foreign countries has been tied to Chytrid outbreaks in areas that had formerly been free of the deadly amphibian disease.

I’ve long been involved in frog confiscations in NYC and am convinced that the trade is adding to the problems already faced by native species; please see this article to learn how you can help.

While Eastern Tiger Salamanders are protected in several states, the larvae of western races are widely used as fishing bait (hooked while alive, no less!). Researchers from the National Science Foundation have documented high levels of Chytrid infection and Ranaviruses in bait trade salamanders.

Chytrid is a complex problem, but bait and food trade issues seem fairly straightforward…yet little is being done. Please see this article to learn how to register your opposition to the use of amphibians as fishing bait.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

New Test for Cryptosporidiosis, an Incurable Disease of Snakes and Lizards

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 15 Nov 2011 19:38:49 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. A decade or so ago, Cryptosporidiosis became recognized as a major concern in captive snake and lizard collections. Caused by a one-celled parasite known as Cryptosporidium varanii, the disease remains incurable to this day. At the Bronx Zoo, where I worked at the time, tests showed that many snakes already in our collection, along with wild and pet reptiles, might be harboring Cryptosporidium. But diagnosis was difficult and errors were common, resulting in the institution of expensive and time-consuming isolation protocols for new and sick animals. So I was happy to learn of a newly devised test that ensures early, accurate diagnosis of Cryptosporidium…it will surely prove useful to pet keepers and zoos alike.

Crypto and the Pet Trade

A number of factors render Cryptosporidiosis as a major concern, including the popularity of reptile pets and the fact that the parasite can be transferred to people. While not often of major concern to healthy adults, Crypto, as it came to be known, is a danger to immune-compromised individuals (please see article below). A recent survey of 672 pets revealed that 1 in 6 of the Corn Snakes and 1 in 12 of the Leopard Geckos tested harbored Crypto in one form or another.

Crypto is the most common cause of a Leopard Gecko ailment popularly known as “Stick Tail Disease”. The parasite dwells in the small intestine, where it prevents proper absorption of food; various bacteria to take hold as well, due perhaps to damage inflicted on the intestinal walls. Loose stools and weakness follow, and the gecko’s thick tail (which stores fat) wastes away to a mere “stick”. Crypto has caused similar problems in Gila monsters, monitors, chameleons and other species.

Crypto is passed in the feces (in a form known as an oocyst) and can remain alive for years until a host is found. Oocysts are difficult to kill other than by steam, undiluted ammonia and certain disinfectants not generally available to hobbyists.

Crypto in Zoo Animals and Wild Populations

Declining populations of many snakes and lizards makes zoo-based breeding programs all-the-more vital. However, Crypto is incurable; the many zoo animals that now harbor it must be isolated, and cannot be bred as the young will likely be infected as well.

The Importance of the New Test

The first Crypto tests, based on fecal samples, were unreliable because the parasite often appeared sporadically, or in minute populations, and so was easy to miss. Also, related parasites infect the foods eaten by snakes and lizards, and distinguishing between the species of Cryptosporidium present was nearly impossible.

Researchers at the University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna have recently devised a DNA-based test that quickly and accurately reveals the presence of Cryptosporidium parasites (please see article below). The test also allows one to determine whether the parasite is present in the snake or lizard, or entered via the animal’s food.

Caring for Crypto-Positive Reptiles

Early detection is important because there are medications, such as Paromomycin, that can keep Crypto populations low enough to allow the infected reptile to survive. However, treatment is only effective if instituted within a certain time frame.

Crypto-positive reptiles cannot be cured at this time, and will require lifelong treatment and special care. Dr. Kevin Wright of the Arizona Exotic Animal Hospital has written an excellent paper on this subject (please see below); please read it to learn more about caring for such animals and preventing Crypto transmission.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook . Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments here…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

That Reptile Blog » Diseases

The Best Terrarium Cleaning Products and Methods

What Are the Risks?

How Infections Are Contracted

Basic Rules

Cleaning Terrariums, Aquariums and Related Items

Further Reading

Amphibian Declines – Pollution Worsens Disease and Parasite Attacks

Parasites and Insecticides: a Confusing Scenario

Are Pathogens Changing?

The Role of Stress

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

Further Reading

Bearded Dragon Health – Atadenovirus (Wasting Disease, Star-Gazing)

Infection and Transmission

Testing

Symptoms

Treatment

Further Reading

Inclusion Body Disease or Stargazing – Pet Owners Aid Vital Research

History and Symptoms

Species Affected

A Newly-Discovered Virus

Solving the IBD Puzzle

The Future

The Role of Pet Owners

Further Reading

Chorus Frogs and Chytrid Bacteria – a Look at the Confusing new Reports

Resilient Chytrid Carriers

A Protective Bacterium

Don’t Blame Chorus Frogs!

Other Chytrid Concerns: Amphibians as Food and Bait

Further Reading

New Test for Cryptosporidiosis, an Incurable Disease of Snakes and Lizards

Crypto and the Pet Trade

Crypto in Zoo Animals and Wild Populations

The Importance of the New Test

Caring for Crypto-Positive Reptiles

Further Reading