That Reptile Blog » Recent Research

Venomous Pythons? – Snakebite Victims Benefit from New Research

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 14 May 2013 15:40:59 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In recent years, researchers have found toxins in a wide array of snakes and lizards formerly believed to be harmless…even the Bearded Dragon is not above suspicion (please see below), but venomous pythons? While working at the Bronx Zoo, I was several times called upon to assist in confiscating snakes that had appeared in the pet trade before we learned of their potentially lethal venom (i.e. Asian Watersnakes, genus Rhabdophis). All evidence of toxicity must be taken seriously…bear in mind that both the Boomslang and Savanna Twig Snake were thought to be harmless until each killed a prominent herpetologist! The recent discovery of toxins in the mucus of certain pythons poses a unique and unexpected concern for snakebite victims.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by CorneliusA

Python Venom

Studies at the University of Queensland have revealed the presence of toxins in the mucus of several python species. Described as “relic venom”, they occur in only trace amounts. In common with many other snakes, pythons may have relied upon venom at some point in their evolutionary history. Although they no longer utilize venom to overcome prey or defend themselves, pythons continue to produce some toxic compounds. While some snakes bear toxins that target specific animals (i.e. Tentacled Snakes, Erpeton tentaculatum, which prey upon fish), python toxins seem to have no use, and pose no danger to people.

The toxin molecules thus far identified in pythons differ from those found in any known venomous snake. Being so chemically unique, they are of great interest to those seeking to develop new chemical compounds and medicines.

Implications for Snakebite Victims

Potential problems arise when a person is bitten by a snake that has not been identified. In such cases, a highly-sensitive venom detection kit is used to determine if toxins are present in the victim. The harmless toxins found in python mucus can trigger a positive response following a python bite, and may result in the unnecessary administration of antivenin (medicines used to counteract snake venom).

In addition to being extremely expensive, antivenin triggers violent allergic reactions in many people. If not treated properly, anaphylactic shock and death can result. Unnecessary treatment also depletes antivenin stocks, which are often difficult to replace. The potential for such problems is greatest in Australia, which is home to a wide variety of both pythons and venomous snakes.

Famous Herpetologists Killed by “Harmless Snakes”

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by TimVickers

Until rather recently, snakes in the family Colubridae (which contains those “typical snakes” with which most people are familiar) were considered relatively harmless. The family’s venomous members are rear-fanged, and it was believed that their seemingly ineffective venom-delivery systems posed little threat to people.

In 1957, however, world-renowned herpetologist Karl P. Schmidt was bitten by a Boomslang (Dispholidus typus) while working at the Chicago Field Museum. At the time, the Boomslang was not believed to be dangerously-venomous. Unconcerned by the fact that a single fang had punctured his thumb, Mr. Schmidt took notes on his symptoms and did not seek medical treatment. He expired the next day. By the early 1970’s, several other deaths had been attributed to this African Colubrid.

Another African rear-fanged snake, the Savanna Twig Snake (Thelotornis capensis), took the life of another prominent herpetologist, Robert Mertens, in 1972. Once considered harmless, this species had been implicated in several deaths by 1972. As any snake enthusiast knows, Mr. Mertens’ work is beyond reproach, but for some reason he decided to hand-feed a captive Twig Snake. He succumbed to the resulting bite after a period of three weeks.

Other Dangerous Colubrid Snakes

Fatalities have also been attributed to bites from the Yamakagashi (Rhabdophis tigrinus), a semi-aquatic Japanese snake. I was involved in confiscations of several related species in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, when they sometimes appeared in US pet stores.

Uploaded to Wikipedia by One dead president

The bites of a number of other “harmless” snakes have caused severe reactions, and all may be capable of causing human fatalities. In fact, the venom of the Blanding’s Treesnake (Boiga blandingi) is as toxic as that of certain cobras. It and related species, such as the Mangrove Snake – a high strung species that I found very difficult to work with in zoo exhibits – should be treated with extreme caution. Other potentially deadly species include Latin America’s Road Guarder (Conophis leneatus) and various Racers in the genera Alsophis and Philodryas.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

World’s Oldest Dinosaur is Discovered and Studied

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 19 Mar 2013 14:08:29 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Recent studies of a creature known as Nyasasaurus parringtoni indicate that dinosaurs may have appeared over 240 million years ago – 10-15 million years earlier than was previously believed. Its fossils, unearthed in Tanzania, also shed light on where dinosaurs first arose and how they spread to new environments. I’ve also summarized some other recent paleontological surprises concerning the oldest dinosaur nest, dinosaur flea, bird, and organic molecule.

Dinosaur or Silesaur?

Nyasasaurus parringtoni lived in the Mid-Triassic period, alongside dinosaur-like reptiles known as Silesaurids (please see drawing). The dating of its fossils to this period is significant, because true dinosaurs were likely very rare at the time.

Some paleontologists believe that Nyasasaurus is a Silesaurid rather than a dinosaur. However, its upper arm bone bears a bony crest that held the shoulder muscles in place. Known as the deltopectorus crest, this structure is found in all other dinosaurs, but not in Silesaurids.

Photo uploaded to Wikipedia by Dmitry Bogdanov.

Dinosaur Origins

The Nyasasaurus fossils were originally found in the 1930’s, but their significance was not apparent until recently. Their collection site (Tanzania) lends strength to the theory that dinosaurs first made their appearance in Pangaea, the ancient southern land mass that existed before the continents began to break away from one another.

Nyasasaurus was likely 6.5 – 10 feet long, but we do not known how it moved about or what it fed upon.

Prior to the discovery of Nyasasaurus, the oldest known dinosaurs were small South American carnivores…but they are a mere 225-230 million years of age!

Oldest Dinosaur Nest

On my frequent visits to the American Museum of Natural History, I never fail to visit the amazing fossil of a small dinosaur on its nest, uncovered some time ago in China. In January of 2012, a Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences article described dinosaur nests that are 100 million years older than the famous nest exhibited at the AMNH (please see artist’s recreation).

Discovered in South Africa’s Golden Gate Highlands National Park, the nests belonged to a herbivorous dinosaur, Massosponylus carinatus. They have been dated to the Jurassic Period, 190 million years ago.

The Oldest Blood-Sucking Parasite

Today’s fleas, although averaging a mere 0.1 inches in length, are very efficient parasites that cause their hosts a great deal of discomfort. But they pale in comparison to the nearly 1 inch-long ancient monsters unearthed in China. These fleas, which lived during the Mid-Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Periods, had huge mouthparts that could likely pierce dinosaur skin.

Studies of preserved fleas have helped us to understand insect evolution. The Chinese dinosaur fleas are believed to have evolved from scorpion flies, which fed by sucking plant sap. Unlike modern fleas, they crawled rather than jumped.

The Oldest Bird

Fossils of the creature known as Archaeopteryx came to light just 2 years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. Possessing both reptilian and bird-like characteristics, Archaeopteryx seemed to validate Darwin’s theory of evolution. But on the 150th anniversary of its discovery (September, 2012), an article in the journal Nature identified Archaeopteryx as a feathered dinosaur rather than a true bird.

Photo uploaded to Wikipedia by Nobu Tamura.

This finding was based on the work of paleontologists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, who discovered a 4-winged descendant of Archaeopteryx. This creature, clearly a dinosaur, helped put to rest the theory that Archaeopteryx was an early bird. With Archaeopteryx out of the picture, the oldest known birds are Epidexipteryx (please see artist’s re-creation) and Epidentrosaurus, 160 million-year-old residents of modern day Inner Mongolia.

The Oldest of the Old

The oldest known organic molecule was found in the fossil of a Crinoid, a creature that pre-dated the dinosaurs by millions of years. Ocean-dwelling Crinoids, plant-like animals resembling modern-day Sea Lilies, lived in Ohio, Indiana and Iowa some 350 million years ago.

According to an article in the current (March, 2013) issue of Geology, intact Quinone cells have been found in Crinoid fossils. Quinones, which are present in today’s Sea Lilies, likely functioned as toxins or pigments. Unfortunately, no DNA was recovered.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,
Frank Indiviglio

Snake Conservation in 2013 – The “Year of the Snake” Begins

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 12 Feb 2013 18:15:38 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In 2010, I highlighted a study that documented steep declines in a number of snake species. Despite disturbing similarities to the “Disappearing Amphibian Crisis”, the snake situation seems not to have generated widespread concern. In my own career as a herpetologist, opportunities to become involved in snake conservation were also limited. Although I was fortunate enough to work in programs designed to bolster the populations of several species, including Green Anacondas, Indigo and Hognose Snakes, most such efforts were short-lived. I was pleased to learn, therefore, that a partnership of several major conservation organizations has made the plight of the world’s snakes a priority for the year 2013.

The Year of the Snake…your input needed

The Year of the Snake effort is spearheaded by Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, and was preceded the Year of the Turtle and the Year of the Lizard. PARC will be joined by the Center for Conservation Biology, the Orianne Society and other notables (please click here for a complete list). In addition to field research and captive breeding programs, public education will be a major component of each group’s activities. I was very glad to see that input from interested non-professionals will be solicited. This is an all-too-rare step, despite the fact that professionals, being limited in both numbers and financial resources, cannot begin to address the myriad conservation needs of the world’s threatened snakes. Please see “What Can I Do”?, below, if you wish to participate.

Threats

Many snakes are declining for well-known reasons, while others face mysterious threats. In several cases, populations have declined by 90% in well-protected areas, a distressing phenomenon that has also been seen among frogs (i.e. the now extinct Golden Toad). I’ll mention just a few below, please write in for further information.

Disease

Most herp enthusiasts are well-aware of the Chytrid fungus epidemic, which has been responsible for the extinctions of 200+ amphibian species. Recently, a fungus that was previously believed limited to captive snakes, Chrysosporium, has been found in wild Timber Rattlesnakes. Although much work remains to be done, there is reason for concern.

Collection

In the USA and abroad, snakes are collected for the pet, leather, medicinal and food trades. Even where, as in the USA, strict regulations are in place, authorities are hampered by poor funding and a lack of management plans. Snakes are extremely difficult to study, and we usually know nothing about the effects of collection (legal or illegal) until drastic declines become apparent.

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

This problem is well-known to all environmentally conscious people, so I’ll just mention 1 sad statistic contained in a recent PARC newsletter:

Ninety-eight percent of the Longleaf Pine habitat in the USA’s southeastern Coastal Plain is gone. This unique ecosystem was home to many at-risk species, including Diamondback Rattlesnakes and Southern Hognose, Indigo and Pine Snakes.

Invasive Species

Mention invasive species and snakes today, and many people will think of Burmese Pythons in Florida or Brown Treesnakes wiping out nearly all of Guam’s forest birds. But snakes also suffer the effects of introduced species. On Antigua, Black Rats and Indian Mongooses, both non-native, brought the Antiguan Racer (Alsophis antiguae) to the brink of extinction. Once reduced to a mere 50 individuals, the total population now numbers nearly 900, but is far from secure.

The subtler effects of introduced species can be seen in the USA’s Sagebrush Steppe Ecosystem, where invasive Cheatgrass has drastically diminished rodent populations key to the survival of the Great Basin Rattlesnake, Crotalus oreganus lutosus.

Year of the Snake Programs

A number of new conservation efforts have already been initiated, and several established programs have been revitalized.

Although designated as a threatened species by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1978, wild populations of the Eastern Indigo Snake, Drymarchon couperi, remain depressed. The Orianne Society has enlisted the help of private breeders, zoos, universities, museums and others in establishing a breeding and management plan.

Populations of the Armenian Viper, Montivipera raddei, and related species have declined by up to 88% in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran. The St. Louis Zoo has worked to establish 3 preserves in the region, and continues research there.

Limited in distribution to islands within Lake Erie, the Lake Erie Watersnake, Nerodia sipedon insularis, has rebounded and been removed from the Endangered Species List. Control of the invasive Round Goby, which displaced the snake’s preferred prey, and a public education program, led to the recovery.

What’s Next…What can I Do?

The legendary Carl Kauffeld, author of such gems as Snakes, the Keeper and the Kept and Snakes and Snake Keeping, put the Staten Island Zoo on the herp world’s map. I haunted its famed reptile house as a child, but was far too shy to approach the man himself. Decades later, I was thrilled to serve as consultant when the building was renovated. I’m happy to report that we have shifted the collection’s focus back to the rattlesnakes and other venomous species so favored by the famous snakeman. Supporting institutions that study and breed endangered snakes is a wonderful and enjoyable means of assuring their survival.

Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation is soliciting articles, observations, stories, poems and other input from non-herpetologists interested in snake conservation. Please visit the PARC website for further information on participating in their worthwhile efforts.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

2012’s New Reptile and Amphibian Species – Snakes, Frogs and Lizards, Which is Your Favorite?

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 10 Jan 2013 14:45:01 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. An amazing array of newly-discovered reptiles and amphibians grabbed our attention this past year. The unexpected discoveries of an undescribed Leopard Frog in New York City and a Rainbow Skink in an Australian backyard reminded us that wonderful surprises surround us, if only we take the time to look and learn. Frogs that dye human skin yellow, snakes that specialize in eating only eggs or snails, iridescent skinks sporting tails twice their body length…the list is simply astounding. Today I’ll highlight a few that have especially captivated me; please post your own favorites (whether covered here or not) below.

Australian Rainbow Skinks

2012 was designated as the Year of the Lizard by several conservation organizations, so I’ll lead off with 3 new skinks that turned up in Queensland, Australia. The brilliant colors of breeding males lend these tropical lizards their common names (please see article below).

The Elegant Rainbow Skink, Carlia decorata, was well known to folks in Townsville, Queensland, as a common garden resident. Upon taking a closer look, however, herpetologists realized that the colorful creature was an undescribed species.

The Orange-Flanked Rainbow Skink, C. rubigo, was first collected in the arid scrub and open woodlands of eastern-central Queensland.

The Whitsunday Rainbow Skink, C. inconnera, is limited in range to 4 small offshore islands. Formerly considered to be a subspecies of a mainland relative, genetic studies have revealed that it warrants full species status.

“No to the Mine” Snail-Eating Snake, Sibon noalamina

Western Panama’s Tabasara Mountain Range yielded this year’s most “politically-active” species. Its species’ name means “No to the mine”, and was given in support of the indigenous Ngobe People’s battle against the development of their montane rainforest home.

I’ve always been fascinated by snakes that specialize in hunting snails and other unusual (for snakes) prey. This video of a related Sibon species consuming a snail illustrates its unique feeding strategy. Panama’s newly-described Snail-Eating Snake is a Coral Snake mimic, and its bold coloration changes with maturity; I’m wondering if it mimics more than one species over its lifetime?

New York City Leopard Frog

This year’s “most unlikely” new species must surely be the Leopard Frog that was discovered in NYC (shattering, incidentally, my belief that I have observed and kept all herps native to my hometown!).

Uncovered by a sharp-eared Rutgers University student who noted an unfamiliar call one evening on Staten Island, the frog was at first thought to be a hybrid of the Northern Leopard Frog and the Southern (which may be extinct in NY). But it is indeed distinct – and its range, centered (in years past) in the Yankee Stadium area, falls entirely within NYC and its suburbs. I’ve written more about this urban frog here.

Cambodian Kukri, Oligodon kampucheaensis

Oddly-shaped fangs that resemble the distinctive Nepalese kukri dagger lend this unique group of snakes their common name. The unusual teeth are used to slice open bird and reptile eggs as they are being swallowed.

The newly-described species is quite beautiful, being rusty-red in color and bearing black-bordered white rings (please see article).

Yellow Dyer Rain Frog, Diasporus citrinobapheus

This tiny (0.8 inch), brightly-colored frog delivered a big surprise – the first person to collect one came away with yellow-dyed hands! So far, chemical tests of the dye have revealed no toxins, but frog secretions are very complex, so I’m keeping an eye out for further information.

In common with related species, the Yellow Dyer Rain Frog has no tadpole stage, and is native to montane rainforests in western Panama.

Iridescent Cambodian Skink, Lygosoma veunsaiensis

The skin of this newfound skink flashes a rainbow of colors when illuminated by sunlight. But one must look long and hard to see this creature in the sun (or at all!), as it is highly-adapted to life below ground. Lygosoma’s legs are unusually short, and the tail is twice the length of the body (please see photo). Herpetologists consider its discovery to be a stroke of good luck…related species are so secretive that that most are known from but a few specimens.

The skink is a rainforest dweller, and was found in the Veun Sai-Siem Pang Conservation Area, home also to a newly-described gibbon and bat.

Chocoan Blunt-Headed Vine Snake, Imantodes chocoensis

As can be seen from the accompanying photo, snakes in the genus Imantodes have huge eyes bulging from heads that seem too large for their pencil-thin necks. But their odd structure suits them well as arboreal, nocturnal hunters of frogs and lizards. Armed with excellent vision, they move by literally flinging themselves through the bushes, and can lash out at prey with blinding speed while anchored to a branch.

The group’s newest member was discovered in northeastern Ecuador. In common with related species, it is rear-fanged and clad in cream, copper, brown, and black. Herpetologists are puzzled at its lack of a loreal scale, which is present in all other Colubrid snakes.

Other Recently-Discovered Amphibians and Reptiles

A number of other fascinating creatures made herp headlines in the recent past. Among the most surprising have been arboreal tadpoles that eat bark, a fanged frog that ambushes birds, large, colorful monitors, and a new Map Turtle from the USA.

Many, many other new reptiles and amphibians have been described in recent years…please let me know your favorites by posting below.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Round Island Boa Reintroduction – Back in Wild after a 150-Year Absence

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 12 Dec 2012 15:11:36 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Mauritius, an island nation off the coast of southeast Africa, is best known to naturalists as the site of the Dodo Bird’s extinction (Mauritius also is, in a sense, the reason I was hired by the Bronx Zoo and spared life as a lawyer – see article below for the story!). Herp enthusiasts, however, know it as the habitat of several unique reptiles, all of which are now very rare or extinct. But we can delight in some news just released by the Durrell Wildlife Trust - a new population of the Round Island or Keel-scaled Boas, Casarea dussumieri, will soon be established in the wild. This unusual snake disappeared from nearly all of its range in the 1860’s, and its return is the culmination of 40 years’ worth of captive breeding and habitat restoration efforts.

Status and Conservation

The Round Island Boa is now confined to Round Island, a tiny speck of habitat where perhaps 500-1,000 individuals survive. A single wild population and limited number of captives place it at continued risk of extinction. The new population to be established on another Mauritian island (where the snake formerly lived) is a vital step towards ensuring the species’ survival.

The Durrell Wildlife Trust became the first institution to breed the Round Island Boa, and maintains most of the captive population. Founded by legendary conservationist and author Gerard Durrell, this unique organization focuses on critically endangered animals and plants, especially those overshadowed by pandas, rhinos and other “charismatic mega-vertebrates”. The Trust was the first to breed the Giant Jumping Rat, Lesser Antilles Iguana, Flat-tailed Tortoise and scores of others (please see article below).

The Reintroduction

The island selected for the new Round Island Boa population has been cleared of the introduced black rats, goats and rabbits that previously destroyed the habitat and prey base. The snake’s primary food, the Telfair’s Skink (Leiolopisma telfairi), was released on the island in 2007 and is now well-established. Like other Mauritian reptiles, Telfair’s Skink has been eliminated from much of its range, but survives on Round Island and at the Durrell Wildlife Trust.

The boas to be reintroduced were collected from Round Island, and will first be monitored to assure that they are genetically diverse and disease-free.

Round Island Boa Natural History

Although originally placed in the genus Boa, this species differs so greatly from seemingly-related snakes that is now classified in its own genus and family (Bolyeridae). The family’s only other member, the Round Island Burrowing Boa (Bolyeria multacarinata), has not been seen since 1975 and is presumed extinct.

The Round Island Boa is oviparous, and changes in color from bright orange to grayish-brown as it matures. There are some indications that females remain with their eggs for a time. Unique scalation lends the alternative common name of Keel-scaled Boa. Juveniles and some adults (especially females) appear to be largely arboreal.

The Round Island Boa’s preferred habitat – forest and palm-dotted savannah – has been largely reduced to brushy scrub by agricultural development, introduced rabbits and goats. Rat predation on young snakes and skinks has contributed to the species’ drastic decline.

What’s Next?

The reintroduced population will be closely monitored by Durrell Wildlife Trust staffers and other conservation organizations. In addition to establishing a new population, the project may serve as a template for future herp recovery efforts. I’ll post updates as they become available.

There are many other success stories, as well as failures. Please post your own thoughts and examples below so that I can share them with readers and researchers. Thanks.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Reptile and Amphibian Abuse – Examples, Laws and How You Can Help

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 06 Dec 2012 15:21:48 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Unfortunately, animal abuse is a serious and surprisingly common problem in the USA. The applicable laws vary from state to state, and it can be difficult to determine which agency is responsible for enforcement. Regulatory agencies are often under-funded, so many rely upon citizen complaints. It is important, therefore, that concerned people learn how to proceed when they suspect that animal abuse is taking place. This is especially true where reptiles and amphibians are concerned, as they draw less interest than mammals, and mistreatment is difficult to detect by the inexperienced. Please be sure to post your own observations below, and let me know if you need help in deciding how to report a problem.

State Law

Animal abuse is a crime every state in the USA, and most aspects of the problem are controlled by state law. This results in a confusing array of widely differing statutes and enforcement policies. Details, such as what constitutes abuse and how the laws are actually enforced, vary from state to state. Until recently (July, 2012), for example, an Indiana “festival” that allowed participants to twist off the heads of turtles for public amusement was held not to violate state law (please see below)! In some states, live Tiger Salamander larvae are legally used as fish bait (please see this article), while in others they are protected as an endangered species.

Adding to the confusion is the fact that various situations, such as pet store neglect or abused private pets, may be handled by different agencies within the same state. Fortunately, the ASPCA provides a list of enforcement agencies for in all 50 states.

Federal Law

The federal Animal Welfare Act governs the operation of breeding facilities, zoos, circuses and research labs. You can learn more about this law, and how to report violations, here.

Common Reptile/Amphibian Abuse Situations

Many people cannot recognize reptile and amphibian abuse. The input of experienced hobbyists is, therefore, very important. Following are some of the most common abuse scenarios that I’ve encountered:

Inappropriate housing of hatchling Red-Eared Sliders: The sale of turtles under 4 inches in length is illegal in all states (please see this article). However, enforcement is spotty because these turtles are usually sold by street vendors rather than through pet stores. Since the turtles are inexpensive, they are treated more as disposable items than live animals, and very little effort is expended on their care.

Food market turtles and frogs: The USDA classifies live food market turtles and frogs as “seafood”, and permits them to be displayed on ice and held in abominable conditions. During my years with the Bronx Zoo, I often took charge of confiscated food trade turtles and American Bullfrogs. The animals invariably suffered from a variety of diseases and injuries, and few survived.

Years ago, I spearheaded a study that investigated mercury levels in Florida Soft-shelled Turtles in NYC markets. Although high levels of mercury and atrocious conditions were documented, I was unable to make any changes in the applicable laws.

Hoarders and Rescuers: These usually well-meaning folks sometimes become over-extended, and wind up doing more harm than good. I’ve assisted the police in some unbelievable situations, including the confiscation of 5 adult Spectacled Caimans from a NYC apartment, and the investigation of several Iguana-filled Manhattan apartments. Animals removed from such situations are often in poor health and difficult to re-home.

Pet Stores and Animal Displays

Conditions are generally improving in these areas, but much work remains to be done. Under-funded “reptile zoos” still pop up from time to time. I helped to investigate several of these, and in most cases state/local authorities acted quickly. However, even where professional herpetologists stand ready to testify, red tape has sometimes resulted in numerous animal deaths.

“Entertainment”

Thankfully, the Indiana “Snapperfest” mentioned earlier is not a common scenario, and “rattlesnake roundups” are fading fast. But the fact that large crowds will cheer as grown men pull the heads from living turtles (as in Indiana) is, to me, very scary. Upon watching a video of this horror show, I was shocked to see that the audience contained numerous young children accompanied by their parents!

Fortunately, the New York Turtle and Tortoise Society and other groups became involved, and the spectacle has now been abolished. Please see this article.

Other Sources of Information

Animal shelter staffers can often answer questions concerning the most effective means of reporting animals in distress. The ASPCA’s Nationwide Animal Shelter Directory is a valuable resource.

Police departments are required to assist in emergencies involving animals if people are at risk (dial 911) and can also advise you on how to proceed in non-emergency situations.

Personal Safety

In addition to helping animals, reporting animal cruelty can save human lives. Studies show that animal abusers are likely to engage in violent crimes against people as well. For this reason, however, police officers advise those witnessing animal abuse not to take action themselves, but rather to dial “911”.

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

Please post any questions you may have concerning abuse or related topics. I’ll do my best to guide you to local assistance.

By becoming involved with a responsible reptile/amphibian club or society, you’ll stay informed and be better equipped to influence local policies. Please check out the website of my favorite such organization, the New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, for examples of how much can be accomplished by dedicated, well-informed people.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Reptiles, Amphibians, Tarantulas among “World’s 100 Rarest Species”

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 28 Nov 2012 15:17:47 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. A unique list of species facing imminent extinction was released by the Zoological Society of London at the recent (September, 2012) World Conservation Congress in Jeju, South Korea. As a former member of several IUCN Species Survival Commissions, I was eager to learn the current thinking on the world’s most threatened creatures. I’ll summarize below…any opinions you may have concerning “passed over” species would be most appreciated (please post below).

I’ve worked with several animals given the dubious honor of “World’s Rarest”, including the Batagur Turtle and Jamaican Iguana, and was heartened to see that zoos and private individuals are still contributing mightily to their protection. However, many of listed species are poorly-studied, and draw few supporters. Unfortunately, two such creatures that I’ve cared for in the past – the Chittenango Ovate Amber Snail and the Tanzanian Spray Toad – are now extinct in the wild.

Worthless or Priceless?

Eight thousand IUCN-based biologists contributed to the report. I was pleased to see that the animals, plants and fungi highlighted provide no readily apparent benefits to humankind. While economic value is an important factor that often spurs action, I think we also need to drive home the point that each species has intrinsic worth, and that all extinctions negatively affect us in some way.

The Pet Trade

Some of the creatures designated as “Most Threatened”, such as the Ploughshare Tortoise, have been both harmed by over-collection and helped by hobbyists who focus on captive reproduction. The Luristan Newt and Peacock Paradise Spider, largely ignored early-on by zoos, are now regularly bred in private collections.

The Threats

While well-known problems such as habitat loss, over-collection, and introduced species continue to plague wildlife, some rarities are threatened for other reasons.

Bullock’s False Toad, for example, is disappearing due to stream alterations undertaken to provide power. Despite extensive surveys, this Chilean amphibian has been seen only twice since 1992. Invasive plants have destroyed the Table Mountain Ghost Frog’s habitat, declining water quality has nearly wiped out the Singapore Freshwater Crab and coral reef destruction threatens the Leaf Scaled Sea Snake’s future.

Following are details for several of the listed species. I’ve focused on those with which I have been involved; you can read the full report here.

Ploughshare Tortoise or Angonoka, Astrochelys yniphora

Although international efforts reduced earlier threats from meat hunters and loggers, pet trade collection continues unabated. The Bronx Zoo received numerous confiscations of Ploughshare Tortoises in the 80’s and 90’s, and there have been recent thefts from Malagasy conservation facilities. Apparently, only one viable wild population remains.

Tarzan’s Chameleon, Calumma tarzan

The three rainforest patches that comprise this species’ entire range measure only 6.2 square miles in total! This brilliant yellow and green Madagascar endemic is protected, but logging roads are being built near its habitat.

Dusky Gopher Frog, Lithobates sevosus

The only US herp on the list, the Dusky Gopher Frog is limited to 6 square miles of habitat in Mississippi. Hopefully, some of what we learned about the captive breeding of close relatives will benefit this frog before its time runs out.

Luristan Newt, Neurergus kaiseri

Impressed by the efforts of several dedicated amphibian enthusiasts, I and others tried, without success, to interest zoos in keeping these amazing animals when they first appeared in the USA. Brilliantly clad in black, orange and white, Luristan Newts were an immediate hit among private hobbyists, and captive breeding followed. But they face severe threats in the wild. Native to only 3 streams in Iran, dams, introduced fish, droughts, and illegal collection may doom the remaining free-living individuals.

Red River Giant Soft-shelled Turtle, Rafetus swinhoei

This species may be down to four individuals, two of which reside in China’s Suzhou Zoo. Legendary herpetologist Peter Pritchard has long been involved in Giant Softshell conservation, and I’ve had the good fortune of speaking with him on the subject. I learned that the outlook is grim – efforts to breed the captive pair, initiated in 2008, have not yet been successful. Sadly, despite recent international attention given this turtle’s plight, a wild individual captured in 2010 would up in the food trade.

The Giant Softshell may top 250 pounds in weight, but, being highly aquatic, is difficult to survey; some hope remains (in me, at any rate!) that undiscovered specimens still inhabit the extensive natural range.

Other Listed Species

The “World’s Rarest” are a fantastic group of creatures, many of which are unknown even to experts. Several, such as the Hula Painted Frog, were believed extinct until recently rediscovered. From the Geometric Tortoise to the Rio Pescado Stubfoot Toad, all hold secrets, and all face a dark future. Please see the article below for detailed information on each.

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

I can attest, from personal experience, that “last-ditch” efforts have averted extinctions. While the Ovate Snails and Spray Toads mentioned earlier now survive only in captivity, others, including the Arabian Oryx and Black-Footed Ferret, have been reintroduced to the wild. The current valiant efforts of zoos and private hobbyists to rescue Southeast Asia’s turtles (please see this article) are responsible for keeping several species from disappearing forever.

So don’t lose hope. Support responsible conservation programs in any way you can – please post here if you would like specific information on how to do this – and don’t forget to list those species that concern you most; after all, far more than 100 are in dire need of out help.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Amphibian Declines – Pollution Worsens Disease and Parasite Attacks

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 22 Oct 2012 16:00:13 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In 1990, the IUCN’s Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force, to which I belonged, was one of the few large scale efforts addressing what is now known as the “Disappearing Amphibian Crisis”. Today, with legions of biologists and hobbyists at work on the problem, we still do not fully understand why nearly 200 species have become extinct in the last 20 years – a rate 200x that of what might be “expected”. But we do have some insights, one of which was highlighted in a recent journal article (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (Biology) . It appears that stress, much of which is in response to what we are doing to amphibian habitats, is worsening the effects of normal pathogens and diseases.

Parasites and Insecticides: a Confusing Scenario

As the reality of worldwide amphibian declines became apparent, herpetologists and private citizens began noticing increasing numbers of deformed and dead frogs. In 1995, school children in Minnesota made headlines when they found dozens of deformed frogs in a local pond. Since several chemicals are known to cause growth abnormalities, researchers began focusing on pollutants. At the Bronx Zoo, I worked with a veterinarian who studied African Clawed Frogs, and was amazed to see ovaries develop in males that had been exposed to Atrazine (a common insecticide).

But pollutants turned out not to be the whole story…a parasite also played a role. The creature involved needs to infect both a frog and a wading bird in order to complete its life cycle. Amazingly, it lives within a tadpole for a time and “re-programs” the development of the hind legs as metamorphosis occurs. The newly-transformed frog develops extra rear legs and, unable to jump very well, is likely to be caught by a heron – just as the parasite “intended”!

Actually, many parasites cause incredible changes in their hosts’ behaviors – one “directs” an ant to climb into the canopy and raise its now red-colored abdomen skyward in imitation of a tasty berry (so that it is eaten by the next essential host, a bird), another causes the host spider to build a silken shelter before dying, so that the parasite has a safe place in which to emerge, and so on…

Are Pathogens Changing?

Amphibians evolved some 300-400 million years ago, long before the dinosaurs, and they’ve likely been battling parasites similar to those described above for much of that time. The same can be said of other fungi, bacteria and viruses that attack them.

Yet it seems that certain pathogens and diseases, despite being around for centuries, are now causing unprecedented amphibian population declines and extinctions. For example, Chytrid fungus, first identified as a serious threat in 1999, may be responsible for the disappearance of nearly 200 species. Although termed an “emerging disease”, it was likely present all along, but is now spreading more rapidly, and having a more devastating effect on its victims. This trend is seen among frogs worldwide (salamanders and caecilians are not as well-studied) – many pathogens are more common now than in years past, are spreading to new habitats, and are causing unusually high mortality rates.

The Role of Stress

According to the article referenced above, multiple stresses may be weakening amphibian immune systems, rendering them unable to battle common illnesses. We see this in captivity all the time – animals that are assailed by inappropriate temperatures, hostile tank-mates or poor diets often fall victim to parasites and diseases that would have been handled by the immune system had conditions been ideal.

One stress factor can depress the immune system (in zoos, birds moved to a new exhibit often succumb to Aspergillosus infections, an ever-present fungus that typically causes no problems). Currently, many amphibians are exposed to pollution, climate change, introduced species, habitat fragmentation and other stressors simultaneously. Small wonder that at least 2,500 species are believed to be in decline.

Permeable skins that allow for the passage of harmful chemicals, and the typical need for two distinct habitats, predispose amphibians to difficulties when environmental changes occur. However, there is evidence that similar processes are at work among other groups as well (please see this article on snake declines).

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

Please be on the alert for deformed amphibians and signs of population declines, and post your observations here. I can help you to get the information to organizations that can put it to good use. Also, a colleague of mine is now involved in Amphibian Ark, a fine conservation group which can provide guidance if need be.

Please see the articles linked below for information on IUCN surveys and other efforts that utilize volunteers.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Green Sea Turtles Die on Farm – Do Meat-Trade Turtles Aid Conservation?

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 24 Sep 2012 14:34:29 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. An accident that caused the deaths of 299 endangered Green Turtles at the Cayman Turtle Farm has raised concerns about the facility’s operation. The incident brought other issues to my mind as well. I was first inspired by the legendary herpetologist Archie Carr, and have since been involved in several field studies of Green, Leatherback and other marine turtles (please see article below). I see the value in organizations such as Cayman Turtle Farm, which raises turtles for the food market while also racking up important “firsts” in breeding and research. However, many disagree with me. What’s your opinion? Any comments you may wish to post below would be much appreciated.

Conservation through Commercialization

Whatever your personal feelings concerning the consumption of turtles or other animals may be, it is clear that commercial farming can play a role in conservation. The classic US example is the American Alligator. Legal protections helped, of course, but large scale breeding for the meat and hide trade made a huge difference in that species’ future.

More recently, the farming of Chinese Softshell Turtles has been advanced as a means to ease the “Asian Turtle Crisis” (please see article below). Herp hobbyists are now breeding species that were unknown even in zoos in years past, often eliminating the financial incentive for collecting wild specimens in the process (please see Do Reptile Hobbyists Help or Hinder Conservation?). At least one conservation organization, Wikiri, is now funding research by breeding frogs for the pet trade (please see this article).

Just last month, I had the thrilling opportunity to meet Jack Rudloe, a legendary naturalist whose work has influenced me since childhood. We spoke about “practical conservation” and, while there are many gray areas, it is clear to me that we cannot operate in a vacuum when the needs of people and animals collide. If this subject interests you, I highly recommend his Time of the Turtle, which combines fact, observations and a premier conservationist’s thoughts in the style of Ditmars, Pritchard and other greats…a rare treat. The Sea Brings Forth and his other books are also unequalled…you’ll not be disappointed!

Turtle Deaths at Cayman Turtle Farm

On July 16, 2012, a leaking underground pipe led to the deaths of 299 3-5 year-old Green Turtles. As marine turtles can survive for quite some time without water, concerns were raised as to why the problem was not discovered sooner. Other questions arose as to the propriety of keeping so many individuals in the same tank and regarding the 2 week interval between the incident and public disclosure.

While the Cayman Turtle Farm has an impressive conservation record, its operation has not been problem-free. An attempt to ship live Green Turtles to Europe was in violation of CITES regulations, and waves from a 2001 hurricane released 75% of the farm’s breeding stock.

In a press release, Cayman Turtle Farms stated that new safeguards, including a backup water supply, have been installed.

Conservation at Cayman Turtle Farm

Founded in 1968, the Cayman Turtle Farm is the island’s largest land-based tourist attraction. It was originally conceived as a means of producing Green Turtle meat via breeding as opposed to hunting. Over time, a significant research/conservation component was added. Turtles hatched at the farm mated and nested in 1975, a first time event that has not been accomplished elsewhere.

In 1980, a breeding program was undertaken to further the conservation of the Kemp’s Ridley Turtle. In 1984, the farm became the only facility to have bred this highly endangered reptile in captivity.

Second generation Green Turtle hatchlings were produced in 1989, and to date 31,000 have been released in conjunction with a “head-starting” effort. This year (2012), a second generation Green Turtle was released and is being monitored via satellite tag. This study, the only one of its kind, may provide important information on the adaptations of captive-bred turtles to the wild. Given marine turtles’ extensive travels and complex mating strategies, herpetologists are very interested in the outcome. You can follow this turtle, known as “Jerry”, here.

Note: Your observations and opinions on this somewhat loaded topic would be most appreciated…please post below.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Venomous Snakebites – My Experiences and Notes on Well-Known Victims

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 07 Sep 2012 19:12:07 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. TV personality Mark O’Shea’s recent King Cobra bite brought to mind the many experiences I’ve had as a snakebite responder for the Bronx Zoo. Mr. O’Shea survived, but venomous snakes claim a surprising number of lives worldwide (4.5 million bites, possibly 100,000 deaths; please see article below). Some bites, as you’ll see, occur in a most unlikely place –New York City! As is fitting for my fair city, few were “routine” – guns, odd characters, suicides, and drug dealers all made appearances.

Zoos and Snakebite Emergencies

The Bronx Zoo cooperates with health authorities in the treatment of venomous snakebites. Antivenin is typically stored at the zoo, not in hospitals. A doctor called upon to treat a bite might not be able to identify the snake involved, and hence would be unable to administer the correct antivenin. In the event of a bite, Bronx Zoo reptile keepers and other staff are summoned by zoo security, a hospital, or the NYPD. Usually, NYPD transports us to the hospital.

In years past, the Bronx Zoo reptile staff was trained to inject antivenin on site. However, we now know that many people are allergic to antivenin, and the resulting anaphylactic shock can kill more quickly than many bites.

Today zookeepers learn emergency first aid, and if bitten would be taken to the hospital via police car. Snakebite alarms are located near each appropriate cage. I once had venom enter my eye when an Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake struck the screen top of its enclosure. This is normally not a concern, as only Spitting Cobra venom affects eye tissue, but there were stitches in my eye due to a recent cornea transplant. Thinking this might allow venom into my bloodstream, I activated the emergency system. Putting myself in the NYPD’s capable hands, I arrived at Jacobi Hospital in record time.

Big Apple Snakebites

Late nights, men in their 20’s, and alcohol were involved in many of the bites I responded to while working at the Bronx Zoo. Yet several especially “bizarre” (being diplomatic here!) incidents lacked these common elements. For example, one young man decided to determine the sex of an illegally-captured Copperhead while driving – with his dog in the car! Needless to say, he was bitten.

Another man, aged 45 or so, routinely carried snakes in his robe pocket, and was said to shower with a cobra! He was bitten on 4-5 occasions, and several times arrived at the hospital via private chopper (he was wealthy with, some have suggested, a bit too much free time on his hands!). His closest brush with death came when he grabbed an electrified cattle fence during a rainstorm, after a Timber Rattlesnake bite. Believing he could “de-nature” the venom, he instead succeeded in “de-naturing” his blood! The attending doctor commented that his blood was “not really blood anymore” – it lacked all clotting factors, and resembled that of someone struck by lightning.

I was sometimes called to Kennedy Airport to assist US F&W Service inspectors with imports. On one occasion, an importer was bitten by an Indian Cobra and barely escaped with his life. However, he then spent a chunk of that life in jail, as illegal weapons were found secreted below the snakes.

The two snake-related deaths that occurred during my tenure had unusual twists. In one sad incident, a distraught young man committed suicide, apparently by inducing his “pet” rattlesnake to bite repeatedly. In the other, a suspected drug dealer was bitten by a small cobra that he was planning to use as a guardian of sorts. Believing the bite to be “minor”, he decided to “monitor it”. He passed away in his sleep that night.

A most interesting call came from the NYPD late one night. In the course of investigating the burglary of a food store in Flushing, they encountered 40 or so live, poorly-caged Western Diamondback Rattlesnakes; others were cooked and steeping in various liquids.

In the course of my career, I and/or my co-workers responded to 30-40 snakebite calls. I recall only one that involved a person being bitten while working outdoors. The culprit was a Massasauga or “Swamp Rattler” (Sistrurus catenatus), a rare species that I have yet to observe in the wild.

Venomous snakes may not legally be kept in private collections in NYC, but people can purchase them in nearby areas have no such laws. Unfortunately, many do not realize that the process of getting antivenin to a victim can be quite lengthy, and even if one survives, permanent damage, including tissue and limb loss, may result.

Those at Greatest Risk

The overwhelming majorities of snakebite victims live in the rural tropical regions, and encounter snakes in the course of their daily activities. Up to 1.5 million people are bitten in Sub-Saharan Africa alone, with over 7,000 deaths and 14,000 limb amputation resulting (only 10% receive antivenin). Please see this article for further information.

The USA presents a very different picture. Here, pet owners and people disturbing wild snakes are the typical victims. Bites to people working outdoors are not common – in 21 years of responding to snakebites in the Northeast, I dealt with but one such incident.

I know of two NYPD officers who were bitten by snakes while poking through rubble during investigations. Fortunately, one involved a Kingsnake and the other, if it was delivered by a venomous species (the snake escaped) was a “dry bite”. As often occurs, both victims were so nervous that several classic signs of envenomation appeared. This reaction is not limited to those unfamiliar with snakes. I’ve attended several bites that involved, shall we say, insecure young men with a misplaced sense of machismo – none held up the “tough guy act” after being bitten!

Zoo-based reptile keepers handle many snakes in the course of their careers (via snake hook – hands are for TV personalities!). Bites occur, but are rare, all things considered. However, working closely with dangerous animals is a risky business, and even the most retiring of creatures can surprise the most experienced of herpetologists…witness Steve Irwin’s tragic death while filming a stingray (possibly a Cowtail Ray, Pastinachus sephen) in 2006.

“Well-Known” Snakebites

Of course, not all bites occur under the unusual circumstances I’ve described. Well respected biologists are not immune. In fact, two snake species were not known to be venomous until they killed prominent herpetologists! (Please write in for details). More recently (2001), noted herpetologist Joseph Slowinski was killed by a Multi-banded Krait (Bulgaris multicintus) while on field research in Myanmar in 2001.

The recent King Cobra bite to Mr. O’Shea occurred during a feeding accident at a UK zoo. Mr. O’Shea, believing that the fangs had not broken his skin, continued his presentation until becoming dizzy (Marlin Perkins, of Wild Kingdom fame, actually took notes on the progression of his symptoms after being bitten by a Gaboon Viper at the St. Louis Zoo! Luckily, he was found, unconscious, by a keeper. I’m in no position to criticize such an accomplished man, but….!). Mr. O’Shea is expected to make a full recovery. I’ve dealt with captive and escaped King Cobras – they are in a class by themselves; please see A Close Call with a King Cobra for details.

Legendary snakeman Bill Haast was bitten hundreds of times, and routinely injected venom into his body in hopes of building up immunities. His unique story is related here.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

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