That Reptile Blog » Herpetology

Venomous Pythons? – Snakebite Victims Benefit from New Research

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 14 May 2013 15:40:59 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In recent years, researchers have found toxins in a wide array of snakes and lizards formerly believed to be harmless…even the Bearded Dragon is not above suspicion (please see below), but venomous pythons? While working at the Bronx Zoo, I was several times called upon to assist in confiscating snakes that had appeared in the pet trade before we learned of their potentially lethal venom (i.e. Asian Watersnakes, genus Rhabdophis). All evidence of toxicity must be taken seriously…bear in mind that both the Boomslang and Savanna Twig Snake were thought to be harmless until each killed a prominent herpetologist! The recent discovery of toxins in the mucus of certain pythons poses a unique and unexpected concern for snakebite victims.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by CorneliusA

Python Venom

Studies at the University of Queensland have revealed the presence of toxins in the mucus of several python species. Described as “relic venom”, they occur in only trace amounts. In common with many other snakes, pythons may have relied upon venom at some point in their evolutionary history. Although they no longer utilize venom to overcome prey or defend themselves, pythons continue to produce some toxic compounds. While some snakes bear toxins that target specific animals (i.e. Tentacled Snakes, Erpeton tentaculatum, which prey upon fish), python toxins seem to have no use, and pose no danger to people.

The toxin molecules thus far identified in pythons differ from those found in any known venomous snake. Being so chemically unique, they are of great interest to those seeking to develop new chemical compounds and medicines.

Implications for Snakebite Victims

Potential problems arise when a person is bitten by a snake that has not been identified. In such cases, a highly-sensitive venom detection kit is used to determine if toxins are present in the victim. The harmless toxins found in python mucus can trigger a positive response following a python bite, and may result in the unnecessary administration of antivenin (medicines used to counteract snake venom).

In addition to being extremely expensive, antivenin triggers violent allergic reactions in many people. If not treated properly, anaphylactic shock and death can result. Unnecessary treatment also depletes antivenin stocks, which are often difficult to replace. The potential for such problems is greatest in Australia, which is home to a wide variety of both pythons and venomous snakes.

Famous Herpetologists Killed by “Harmless Snakes”

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by TimVickers

Until rather recently, snakes in the family Colubridae (which contains those “typical snakes” with which most people are familiar) were considered relatively harmless. The family’s venomous members are rear-fanged, and it was believed that their seemingly ineffective venom-delivery systems posed little threat to people.

In 1957, however, world-renowned herpetologist Karl P. Schmidt was bitten by a Boomslang (Dispholidus typus) while working at the Chicago Field Museum. At the time, the Boomslang was not believed to be dangerously-venomous. Unconcerned by the fact that a single fang had punctured his thumb, Mr. Schmidt took notes on his symptoms and did not seek medical treatment. He expired the next day. By the early 1970’s, several other deaths had been attributed to this African Colubrid.

Another African rear-fanged snake, the Savanna Twig Snake (Thelotornis capensis), took the life of another prominent herpetologist, Robert Mertens, in 1972. Once considered harmless, this species had been implicated in several deaths by 1972. As any snake enthusiast knows, Mr. Mertens’ work is beyond reproach, but for some reason he decided to hand-feed a captive Twig Snake. He succumbed to the resulting bite after a period of three weeks.

Other Dangerous Colubrid Snakes

Fatalities have also been attributed to bites from the Yamakagashi (Rhabdophis tigrinus), a semi-aquatic Japanese snake. I was involved in confiscations of several related species in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, when they sometimes appeared in US pet stores.

Uploaded to Wikipedia by One dead president

The bites of a number of other “harmless” snakes have caused severe reactions, and all may be capable of causing human fatalities. In fact, the venom of the Blanding’s Treesnake (Boiga blandingi) is as toxic as that of certain cobras. It and related species, such as the Mangrove Snake – a high strung species that I found very difficult to work with in zoo exhibits – should be treated with extreme caution. Other potentially deadly species include Latin America’s Road Guarder (Conophis leneatus) and various Racers in the genera Alsophis and Philodryas.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 03 May 2013 15:03:28 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As a small boy, I devoured the books of Messrs.’ Ditmars, Kauffeld, Whittaker, Sanderson and others who sought out snakes in their natural habitats. The formidable Black Mamba, (Dendroaspis polylepis), accorded respect by all, was given a special place of honor by legendary snake man C.J.P. Ionides in Mambas and Maneaters. Although I was eager to expand my snake hunting experiences, these authors convinced me that this longest of Africa’s venomous snakes was better observed than handled. Fate intervened, however, and I wound up working closely with what has been described as “Africa’s deadliest snake”. Accounts of the recent escape of a Black Mamba from the Pretoria Zoo brought an experience of my own back to mind…

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Tad Arensmeier

Handling Mambas and Cobras

Zoo-based reptile keepers such as I handle thousands of venomous snakes over the course of their careers. A snake hook generally fits the bill for routine tasks. The Black Mamba, King Cobra and several related species, however, present special challenges, especially when they reach full size. Quick, high-strung, and seemingly more alert and intelligent than others, many Elapids (cobras, mambas and their relatives) are difficult to move via snake hooks….all old reptile keepers have their stories. You can read about my adventures with an escaped King Cobra in this article.

I was fortunate in having had the benefit of working with several older, well- experienced keepers, and had no illusions about “proving” myself when it came to cobras and mambas. I feel that “discretion is the better part of valor” where they are concerned, a belief confirmed by observations made in the course of responding to many snakebite emergencies over the years. Whenever possible, I relied upon shift cages or other “tricks” (please see article below) when I needed to move a mamba.

You Want Me to Do What with the Black Mamba?!

But there came I time when, as consultant for the renovation of the Staten Island Zoo’s reptile house, I was called upon to capture a large Black Mamba and ready it for shipment to another zoo. The snake, a large adult, had not been on a snake hook or otherwise manipulated in years. A shift cage was attached to its exhibit, and the exhibit door was not opened for cleaning unless the snake was locked away in the shift.

Snakes in transit are confined in pillow cases or similar cloth bags, which are tied tightly and then placed into a second bag. Generally a straightforward task… but not with an aggressive, 9 foot-long snake that can flip off a snake hook or exit a bag in the blink of an eye!

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Bill Love / Blue Chameleon Ventures / Reptile & Amphibian Photo Gallery

How to Bag a Black Mamba

After some consideration, I decided to lure rather than force the mamba into a bag. I found a bag of the right size and secured it with duct tape to the opening that led from the exhibit into the shift cage. I then acclimated the snake to feeding within the bag. Black Mambas have fast metabolisms by snake standards, and generally consume quite a bit more food than similarly-sized individuals of other species…hatchlings have been known to reach 6 feet in length within by within one year. Hunger can, therefore, sometimes be used to manipulate them.

You can bet I kept our Black Mamba very hungry prior to shipment! This is standard practice when shipping any snake, as stress can induce regurgitation and related problems, but to be honest I was far more concerned with my stress levels than the mamba’s! When it came time to confine the snake, I rubbed the inside of the bag with a mouse and opened the shift door. Happily, the mamba shot it without hesitation.

I was careful to secure the bag’s opening with a long handled tong, after which I lifted the now violently-moving package into a large plastic garbage can. As is done when packing all snakes, I pulled the neck and 2 feet or so of the bag out of the can, and then placed the can’s lid securely on top. Thus, the snake was confined in that part of the bag which remained within the can, and the lid prevented it from reaching the bag’s neck (or my hand). I could now safely tie the bag by hand, and then secure it further with a cable tie.

I think that some of my younger co-workers would have preferred a more dramatic capture, but I was quite pleased with myself (as was the zoo’s curator and the doctor who had been placed on notice at the local hospital!).

Natural History

Occasionally approaching 14 feet in length, the Black Mamba is the longest of Africa’s venomous snakes, and its venom is among the most toxic to be found on the continent. Add to this a wide range, the ability to colonize farms and villages, and a propensity to bite multiple times in quick succession when threatened, and it becomes clear why this a creature of much concern and deserving of detailed study. Yet it remains difficult to separate mamba fact from fiction. I’ll cover Black Mamba lore and natural history in the near future.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Snake Hunting with Romulus Whittaker

Snake Escapes: Recapturing Cobras and Others

Post from: That Reptile Blog

Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes

The post Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakes appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

2012’s New Reptile and Amphibian Species – Snakes, Frogs and Lizards, Which is Your Favorite?

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 10 Jan 2013 14:45:01 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. An amazing array of newly-discovered reptiles and amphibians grabbed our attention this past year. The unexpected discoveries of an undescribed Leopard Frog in New York City and a Rainbow Skink in an Australian backyard reminded us that wonderful surprises surround us, if only we take the time to look and learn. Frogs that dye human skin yellow, snakes that specialize in eating only eggs or snails, iridescent skinks sporting tails twice their body length…the list is simply astounding. Today I’ll highlight a few that have especially captivated me; please post your own favorites (whether covered here or not) below.

Australian Rainbow Skinks

2012 was designated as the Year of the Lizard by several conservation organizations, so I’ll lead off with 3 new skinks that turned up in Queensland, Australia. The brilliant colors of breeding males lend these tropical lizards their common names (please see article below).

The Elegant Rainbow Skink, Carlia decorata, was well known to folks in Townsville, Queensland, as a common garden resident. Upon taking a closer look, however, herpetologists realized that the colorful creature was an undescribed species.

The Orange-Flanked Rainbow Skink, C. rubigo, was first collected in the arid scrub and open woodlands of eastern-central Queensland.

The Whitsunday Rainbow Skink, C. inconnera, is limited in range to 4 small offshore islands. Formerly considered to be a subspecies of a mainland relative, genetic studies have revealed that it warrants full species status.

“No to the Mine” Snail-Eating Snake, Sibon noalamina

Western Panama’s Tabasara Mountain Range yielded this year’s most “politically-active” species. Its species’ name means “No to the mine”, and was given in support of the indigenous Ngobe People’s battle against the development of their montane rainforest home.

I’ve always been fascinated by snakes that specialize in hunting snails and other unusual (for snakes) prey. This video of a related Sibon species consuming a snail illustrates its unique feeding strategy. Panama’s newly-described Snail-Eating Snake is a Coral Snake mimic, and its bold coloration changes with maturity; I’m wondering if it mimics more than one species over its lifetime?

New York City Leopard Frog

This year’s “most unlikely” new species must surely be the Leopard Frog that was discovered in NYC (shattering, incidentally, my belief that I have observed and kept all herps native to my hometown!).

Uncovered by a sharp-eared Rutgers University student who noted an unfamiliar call one evening on Staten Island, the frog was at first thought to be a hybrid of the Northern Leopard Frog and the Southern (which may be extinct in NY). But it is indeed distinct – and its range, centered (in years past) in the Yankee Stadium area, falls entirely within NYC and its suburbs. I’ve written more about this urban frog here.

Cambodian Kukri, Oligodon kampucheaensis

Oddly-shaped fangs that resemble the distinctive Nepalese kukri dagger lend this unique group of snakes their common name. The unusual teeth are used to slice open bird and reptile eggs as they are being swallowed.

The newly-described species is quite beautiful, being rusty-red in color and bearing black-bordered white rings (please see article).

Yellow Dyer Rain Frog, Diasporus citrinobapheus

This tiny (0.8 inch), brightly-colored frog delivered a big surprise – the first person to collect one came away with yellow-dyed hands! So far, chemical tests of the dye have revealed no toxins, but frog secretions are very complex, so I’m keeping an eye out for further information.

In common with related species, the Yellow Dyer Rain Frog has no tadpole stage, and is native to montane rainforests in western Panama.

Iridescent Cambodian Skink, Lygosoma veunsaiensis

The skin of this newfound skink flashes a rainbow of colors when illuminated by sunlight. But one must look long and hard to see this creature in the sun (or at all!), as it is highly-adapted to life below ground. Lygosoma’s legs are unusually short, and the tail is twice the length of the body (please see photo). Herpetologists consider its discovery to be a stroke of good luck…related species are so secretive that that most are known from but a few specimens.

The skink is a rainforest dweller, and was found in the Veun Sai-Siem Pang Conservation Area, home also to a newly-described gibbon and bat.

Chocoan Blunt-Headed Vine Snake, Imantodes chocoensis

As can be seen from the accompanying photo, snakes in the genus Imantodes have huge eyes bulging from heads that seem too large for their pencil-thin necks. But their odd structure suits them well as arboreal, nocturnal hunters of frogs and lizards. Armed with excellent vision, they move by literally flinging themselves through the bushes, and can lash out at prey with blinding speed while anchored to a branch.

The group’s newest member was discovered in northeastern Ecuador. In common with related species, it is rear-fanged and clad in cream, copper, brown, and black. Herpetologists are puzzled at its lack of a loreal scale, which is present in all other Colubrid snakes.

Other Recently-Discovered Amphibians and Reptiles

A number of other fascinating creatures made herp headlines in the recent past. Among the most surprising have been arboreal tadpoles that eat bark, a fanged frog that ambushes birds, large, colorful monitors, and a new Map Turtle from the USA.

Many, many other new reptiles and amphibians have been described in recent years…please let me know your favorites by posting below.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Water Scorpion Care and Habits – Aquatic Insects for Arachnid Fans

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 08 Oct 2012 15:01:44 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Over the past several months, I’ve spent much time collecting aquatic insects with my nephew, who is quite the intense little naturalist (please see photos – I’m having as much fun as he!). In addition to our usual haul of backswimmers, predacious diving beetles, dragonfly larvae and the like, this season I was pleased to find a healthy population of Brown Water Scorpions (Ranatra fusca). Combining characteristics of mantids, walking sticks and scorpions, all modified for life underwater, these amazing creatures are simple to keep and fascinating to get to know.

Aquatic Insects as Pets

In years past, I set up aquatic insect exhibits for several zoos and public aquariums, but it seems that interest remains rather low among private invertebrate keepers. This surprises me, as their range of lifestyles rivals that of their land-bound cousins, and never fails to astonish me even after all these years. Please see this article for information on aquatic beetle care, and watch for others in the future.

Natural History

Classification

Water Scorpions are classified in the order Hemiptera and the family Nepidae. Members of the order Hemiptera, known as True Bugs, have sucking, beak-like mouthparts. Examples include cicadas, giant water bugs, backswimmers, leafhoppers and aphids. Approximately 270 Water Scorpion species have been described worldwide, 13-15 of which inhabit North America. No doubt many others are awaiting “discovery”.

Physical Description

The body of the Brown Water Scorpion resembles that of a terrestrial stick insect and is yellowish-tan to dark brown in color. Others, including those in the North American genus Nepa, are flattened in appearance. The front legs are raptorial (designed for grasping) and superficially similar to those of a praying mantis. Unlike a mantis, however, the terminal segments of the Water Scorpion’s front legs fit into a groove when not in use, and swing out like folding knives when needed. These hook-like leg tips can be seen in the photo showing a Water Scorpion poised just below a guppy.

The middle and hind legs are about as long as the body, and paired breathing tubes are situated at the end of the abdomen. This species reaches 1.75 inches in length (to approximately 3 inches including the breathing tube).

Water Scorpions can fly, but do so only rarely.

Amazing Organs

Three pairs of disc-shaped organs on the abdomen, known as false spiracles, enable Water Scorpions to gauge water depth and compensate for changes in water pressure.

Range

From southern Canada through much of the continental USA to northern Mexico.

Habitat

Poorly adapted for swimming, Water Scorpions favor the still waters of ponds, swamps, lake edges and canals, where they remain immobile among plants and sticks. The photo of my nephew “waiting in ambush” shows their typical habitat.

Diet

This voracious carnivore feeds largely upon the body fluids of invertebrates, but will also take small tadpoles, fishes and newts. Water Scorpions are ambush predators, relying upon camouflage when hunting. They lash out with the front legs and subdue prey via salivary fluids injected through the sharp beak. These fluids contain chemicals that tranquilize prey and initiate digestion; food is consumed in liquid form, in the manner of spiders.

Reproduction

Eggs are inserted into living or dead plants, and hatch in 2-4 weeks. The nymphs resemble the adults (incomplete metamorphosis) and mature in 4-6 weeks.

Captive Care

Enclosure

The aquarium should be covered and the water slow-moving. Water Scorpions are poorly-equipped for swimming, and will perish if buffeted by strong currents.

The tank should be well-stocked with plants (preferably live) and sticks that rise to the water’s surface. Water Scorpions breathe by extending the abdominal breathing tubes above the water’s surface, and cannot utilize oxygen dissolved in the water. They will not thrive if unable to station themselves on a plant or stick near the water’s surface.

Filtration and Water Quality

Water Scorpions may be kept in an unfiltered bowl, jar, or aquarium if provided a weekly water change (please see photo of my simple enclosure). Live plants will enhance the aquarium’s appearance and assist in maintaining water quality. If filtration is desired, be sure to avoid strong water currents. Sponge, undergravel, and corner filters are ideal.

Although Water Scorpions inhabit waters that are often subjected to varying pH and ammonia levels, water quality should not be ignored. In this regard, they should be maintained as are tropical fishes (please write in if you need further information). Water used in the aquarium should be treated with chlorine/chloramine removal drops and maintained at pH 6.8-7.2.

Light, Heat and Water Quality

Temperatures of 65-82 F are well-tolerated.

Feeding

Water Scorpions are attracted to prey by movement, and will take small crickets and bits of fish, shrimp and earthworm from tongs. I also offer small guppies, mosquito larvae and blackworms. I’ve not seen them take smaller prey items, but mosquito larvae do disappear (and seem not to be buzzing about the house!).

Compatible Species

In common with many aquatic insects, Water Scorpions will consume smaller individuals of their own species. However, as captive breeding seems not to have been recorded, keeping several in a well-planted aquarium would be worthwhile (reduced temperatures and a shortened light cycle in winter may encourage reproduction).

These slow, deliberate hunters will not get enough food in aquariums housing diving beetles, water boatmen, fishes and other aggressive feeders. In such situations, they must be individually fed via tongs.

Captive Longevity

Adults over-winter and can live for 2 – 2.5 years.

Handling

As you can see from my 4-year-old nephew’s smiling face, Water Scorpions are rather “stiff” and cannot bite if held as illustrated. The long beak seems quite formidable, but several observers report that it cannot pierce human skin (this re Brown Water Scorpions; others not mentioned). I’m wary of aquatic insects, however, as even the smallest predatory species can usually inflict a painful bite. After so many decades of being bitten and stung by creatures large and small, I have no desire to experiment! I advise that you handle via tongs or a net.

What Can I Do?

Insects and other invertebrates occupy every conceivable aquatic habitat, from birdbaths to swamps and even the sea. Running a net or small strainer through just about any bit of available water will yield a treasure trove of interesting creatures, many of which are quite easy to keep and even breed. So get out there and look around, and please feel free to write in with suggested topics, so that I can cover your favorite species.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Malayan and Kuhl’s Flying Geckos – Breeding and Care

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 15 Aug 2012 15:41:30 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Like most lizard enthusiasts, I was mesmerized by Flying Geckos at first glance. Early on, both Malayan and Kuhl’s Flying Geckos (Ptychozoon lionotum and P. Kuhli) were rare in the trade, but by the early 1980’s I found them readily available and integrated both into a Southeast Asian exhibit I maintained at the Bronx Zoo. I had some breeding success, but today’s stock remains largely wild caught. Because they are both inexpensive and bizarre, Flying Geckos are often purchased by relatively inexperienced keepers. But while they can be hardy, prolific breeders, Flying Gecko ownership requires some forethought; hopefully the following information will prepare you.

Description

The 7 Flying Geckos in the genus Ptychozoon are among the most unique of the world’s 900+ gecko species. Both the Malayan and Kuhl’s reach 6-8 inches in length and are distinguished by skin folds (along the head, flanks and toes) that enable them to glide through the air. A heavily-serrated tail assists in breaking up their outline. In overall appearance, I can best describe them as “amazingly bark-like”.

Their color varies through a wide range of tans, grays and browns, and the skin is marked with an array of blotches and stripes. Malayan and Kuhl’s Flying Geckos are difficult to differentiate by eye; the Kuhl’s tongue is often tipped in black, but I cannot say whether this always holds true.

Range and Habitat

The Malayan Flying Gecko inhabits Myanmar, Thailand, India, Malaysia and neighboring islands. The range of Kuhl’s Flying Gecko extends from southern Thailand through Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, Borneo and Sulawesi, and overlaps that of its cousin extensively. Whether or not they hybridize, or utilize different niches within the same range, has not been researched. Other geckos are, however, known to partition habitats in species-rich areas; this article describes an interesting study carried out on Borneo.

Flying Geckos favor rainforests and other humid, densely-foliated habitats. However, they have colonized farms and human habitations, and it is from such areas that most are collected.

Captive Care

Malayan and Kuhl’s Flying Geckos may be kept and bred under similar conditions. As most in the trade are wild-caught, stress, mites and internal parasites are a major concern. As concerns medication, I’ve found them to be quite delicate; be sure that you use a well-experienced veterinarian to examine all new arrivals.

The Terrarium

Although wild-caught females may initially produce eggs, sustained captive breeding is only possible if the appropriate environment and diet is provided. A spacious terrarium – a 20-30 gallon tank for a trio – is essential. “Tall” style aquariums are ideal. Flying Geckos spend most of their time on tree trunks, where their camouflage may be used to great advantage, and will be stressed if forced to use other resting sites. Corkbark or native tree bark must be available, and the cage should be densely-planted (live plants are best). Flying Geckos will not thrive in bare enclosures.

Temperature, Humidity and Light

Humidity should be maintained at 75-80% for most of the year (see “Breeding”), with a temperature gradient of 75-85 F. Nighttime temperatures can dip to 70 F. A mix of sphagnum moss and a forest bedding, serves well as a substrate.

Although Flying Geckos are nocturnal, wild individuals often spend their days in open situations, on tree trunks, and may therefore be exposed to UVB. Low doses of UVB, as provided by a ZooMed 2.0 bulb, are likely beneficial. Overly-bright environments should be avoided, so choose plants that do well in low light (pothos, snake and cast iron plants). Incandescent heat bulbs can be used to maintain temperatures; red/black night bulbs (which will assist in nighttime observations) or ceramic heater-emitters can be used after dark.

Diet

Flying Geckos specialize in hunting flying and arboreal insects, and will not fare well on crickets alone. Housefly cultures, silkworms, roaches, moths and other insects are essential to their well-being. The comments in this article on Red-Eyed Treefrog Diets are largely applicable; please write in if you have any questions on this critical aspect of husbandry.

Breeding

Mature males may be distinguished from females by their pre-anal pores and the two scaly skin-folds that outline the cloaca.

Males fight savagely, and cannot be housed together. A single male may be kept with multiple females. Gecko skin is delicate, and bite injuries may occur during courtship and copulation; check also for dominance battles among females.

Stimulating Reproduction

In the wild, breeding likely extends through much or all of the rainy season (March to May through October, depending upon locale). Increasing the frequency and duration of daily misting in the spring will encourage captives to come into breeding condition. Novel food items and increased dietary variety should also be introduced at this time. Some have reported that removing and re-introducing a male will stimulate interest.

Lowering temperature and humidity slightly during the fall and winter may also be useful, but is not critical (please write in for details).

The Eggs

Gravid female swell noticeably, and their 2 eggs will be visible through the skin in time. A well-fed female may produce 3, or possibly more, clutches of 2 eggs each. I’ve recorded inter-clutch intervals of 2-3 weeks, but this time period is likely affected by many factors.

Eggs are affixed to bark, glass or stout plant leaves. Be sure to provide ample nesting sites that can be removed for incubation, as the eggs are often broken during attempts to peel them from the deposition surface. Corkbark slabs are ideal, as they can be cut to fit incubators if need be.

Incubation

Suitably-sized plastic terrariums, with the ventilation ports sealed, make ideal incubators. Eggs under my care generally hatched in 60-80 days at 82-85 F, but temperatures of 70-90 F, and incubation times of 30-90 days, have been reported.

Eggs deposited on glass are difficult to remove; I’ve incubated House and Day Gecko eggs on glass by affixing a cup containing damp sphagnum moss over the eggs, but this is not an ideal situation.

The Young

Hatchlings average a bit over 2 inches in length and may be reared on fruit and other flies, small crickets and roaches, silkworms, moths, termites and similar insects (please see diet comments above).

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Reptile & Amphibian Conservation – Protection Sought for 53 US Natives

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 07 Aug 2012 15:28:16 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. I’ve recently posted information concerning a petition that seeks Endangered Species Act protection for 53 US herps. Many readers applauded the news, but some were concerned about potential limitations on their ability to keep protected species. As they correctly pointed out, responsible pet owners have made important contributions to the conservation of many species (please see article below). In the course of my work as a zoologist, I’ve often dealt with federal, state and international permits, and continue to assist zoos with related issues. Today I’d like to explain a bit more about this proposal, which was championed by the Center for Biological Diversity, and how it may impact target species in the wild and captivity.

The ESA: Pros and Cons for Herp Keepers

Although federal red tape complicates life for private herp owners, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) remains our nation’s most powerful conservation tool. A recent study revealed that the ESA is 99% effective in preventing extinctions…once a species is listed, its survival is almost guaranteed. Benefits to such species extend beyond permit requirements – habitat protection, research funds, compilation of recovery plans and other possibilities arise. This post lists frequently asked questions concerning the ESA.

In common with most herpetologists, I started out as a hobbyist, and I maintain a personal collection to this day. The efforts of volunteer wildlife rehabilitators, zoo docents, “citizen scientists” and hobbyists have been of enormous help in my work, and I’ve acknowledged this in many articles and all of my books. Private ownership of ESA-protected animals remains possible, as well it should, but restrictions apply; please write in if you need assistance. I remain in favor of responsible herp ownership…please see this article for more thoughts on the contributions of private herp owners.

The Scope of the Problem

Both here and abroad, reptiles and amphibians face emerging diseases, habitat loss, introduced species, collection for the food and pet trades, pollution and other threats. Turtles and amphibians are considered to be in a crisis situation by many conservationists.

As of 2011, the IUCN listed 1,900 amphibian and 664 reptile species as endangered or threatened with extinction. As many as 200 amphibians may have become extinct in recent years as a result of Chytrid infection (please see this article). But this is the mere tip of the iceberg, as many species have not been evaluated, and we lack even basic information on at least 25% of the world’s herps.

Only 58 reptile and amphibian species are protected under the ESA. Herpetologists estimate that 82% of the USA’s vulnerable herps have no protection at all; please see this article for information on rare but unprotected native amphibians.

The Center for Biological Diversity’s Proposal

Filed on July 11, 2012, the CBD’s ground-breaking proposal spans 450 pages and seeks ESA protection for 53 herps in 45 states (you can see a state-by-state list here). The largest effort of its kind, the proposal is supported by E.O. Wilson, Thomas Lovejoy and other eminent biologists.

Included among the animals of concern are 24 salamanders (an often-neglected group), 6 frogs/toads, 10 lizards, 6 turtles and 7 snakes, some of which have lost 95% of their original habitat. I was pleased to see that both well-known (Wood Turtles, Florida Pine Snakes) and little-studied (Short-Tailed Snake, Green Salamander) species were included.

Following is a sample of the species proposed by the CBD. I think you’ll be surprised at the lack of protection currently given to most, despite the fact that they have long been in obvious decline.

Alligator Snapping Turtle, Macroclemmys temmincki

The Bronx Zoo’s 205-pound Alligator Snapper, who was under my care for many years, has inspired the passions of legions of turtle enthusiasts (please see photo). But zoos may be the only place to see these magnificent creatures in the near future. Although likely extinct in 5 of the 14 states within their range, and absent from 95% of their habitat, Alligator Snappers are still legally harvested for food in some places!

Cascade Cave Salamander, Eurycea latitans

Found only in several caves in one Texas county, this neotenic aquatic salamander rarely if ever sees the light of day. It is extremely sensitive to water quality, and threatened by a falling water table and pollution of the underground streams it inhabits. Although protected in Texas, nothing has been done to preserve its tiny habitat.

Key Ring-Necked Snake, Diadophis punctatus acricus

This colorful, 6-inch-long snake is limited to shoreline limestone ridges on several of Florida’s Keys. Residential development has claimed 98% of its habitat, and introduced Fire Ants threaten the remaining populations. It is protected from collection (not a factor in its rarity) but not from habitat loss.

Western Spadefoot Toad, Spea hammondii

Eastern Spadefoot Toads have always amazed me with their ability to appear at breeding ponds, seemingly out of nowhere, after rainstorms. I’ve not found their western cousin, and may never do so if it receives only the limited protection offered by its current status as a “species of special concern”. The Western Spadefoot’s survival is hampered by a small natural range and a dependence on vernal pools. Found only in grassy scrub habitats from San Francisco to northern Baja, Mexico, this unusual burrower has lost 80% of its habitat.

Yuman Desert Fringe-Toed Lizard, Uma rufopunctata

Skin-fringed toes enable this desert-dweller to skim over the wind-blown sand. These toes, along with over-lapping eyelids and sealable nostrils and ears, render it among our most unique lizards. Although this species’ Arizona range can be measured in acres, the Yuman Desert Fringe Toe lacks state protection.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Lizard Conservation in the USA – 2012 Declared “Year of the Lizard”

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 18 Apr 2012 16:08:36 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. The Partnership for Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC), a group comprised of private citizens, herpetologists, environmental organizations and others, has made great progress in the 10 years since its inception. 2011’s “Year of the Turtle” effort was especially effective in raising support for tortoise and turtle conservation. This year, the group has turned its attention to lizards, with an emphasis on North America’s many unique and imperiled species.

Lizard Conservation Overview

In the eye of the general public, lizards do not suffer the “image problem” that besets snakes, yet they lack the appeal of turtles and frogs. And so their conservation needs are, with few exceptions, not well-known. I sometimes wonder if the high visibility of a few common anoles and geckos in warm locales leads some (non-herp-oriented) people to regard lizard populations as relatively secure.

The problem is not limited to the private sector. After a lifetime of working with professional herpetologists, I have the sense that lizard specialists are not in great abundance. Even the IUCN admits that the world’s 5,000+ species require more of its attention.

Only 38 of the USA’s 110-115 lizards have been classified under the Endangered Species Act. Eleven of these, including the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard, Florida Sand Skink and Blunt-Nosed Leopard Lizard, are considered to be threatened or endangered. Certainly, others need attention, and protection given to rare lizards often benefits other creatures as well. For example, the Dunes Sage brush Lizard is endemic to a unique sand dune-Shinnery Oak ecosystem in SW New Mexico and West Texas. Surveys of the habitat are not complete, but already 14 endemic insects have been discovered.

Bringing Lizards into the Spotlight

In light of the above, I applaud PARC’s decision to focus this year’s work on lizards. Coordinated research, conservation, and educational efforts will be utilized to protect and study a number of species while putting lizard conservation in the public eye. Periodic newsletters (sample and sign up here), which are always well-written, will highlight various projects, species and researchers. Anyone with an interest in lizard conservation can submit photos for possible use in PARC’s monthly calendar (click here for details), lizard art, articles, and educational materials.

Threats to US Lizards

Lizards everywhere are threatened by many of the same things that trouble other creatures, including habitat loss and fragmentation, over-exploitation, climate change and introduced species. PARC’s newsletters and updates do a great job of explaining exactly how and why these processes are occurring. Following are some unique examples.

Introduced Animals

The USA is home to approximately 150 lizard species – but only 110 or so are native! The 40 introduced lizards negatively affect others via competition and predation, and may introduce diseases or parasites for which US lizards have no defenses.

Introduced Fire Ants are troublesome to several horned lizard species, all of which feed nearly exclusively upon ants, in several ways. By displacing native ants, they limit the lizards’ food supply (Fire Ants are not taken as prey). Fierce predators in their own right, Fire Ants also attack lizards and their eggs. They likely affect plant communities as well, which in turn can impact horned lizard survival by altering the environment.

Introduced Indian Mongooses are driving the St. Croix Ground Lizard to the brink of extinction. I was fortunate enough to see this lizard in the wild many years ago, but have been told they are now gone from the site I visited.

The list goes on – from predatory feral cats to parrots that spread the seeds of invasive shrubs, the problems posed by introduced species are legion.

Introduced Plants

Exotic animals are not the only introduced threats that plague lizards. Plants can be as bad, or worse, especially for those species with demanding habitat requirements and small natural ranges. In the American Southwest, invasive Bufflegrass and Cheatgrass are rendering vast tracts of land uninhabitable for Reticulate Collared Lizards and Desert Horned Lizards.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Anaconda Attacks – Notes from a Study of Wild Snakes in Venezuela

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 11 Apr 2012 21:00:13 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Green Anacondas (Eunectes murinus) and other giant constrictors inspire tall tales among those not well-acquainted with them, and respect in those who are. African Rock and Reticulated Pythons have taken humans as prey (please see this article), and Burmese Pythons have caused fatalities, but information concerning Green Anaconda attacks is sketchy. Their aquatic lifestyle and tendency to inhabit sparsely-populated areas renders it difficult to discern fact from fiction. Today I’d like to provide some personal observations drawn from my time working with Anacondas in the field.

Tagging Wild Anacondas – a Herper’s Dream Job

In the mid 1990’s, while working for the Bronx Zoo, I had the good fortune of participating in a long-term field study of Green Anacondas in Venezuela – the first and only one of its kind. Over 900 specimens were captured, and a treasure-trove of new facts was documented.

Attempted Human Predation?

Two incidents that occurred during the study indicated that Green Anacondas may view humans as a potential meal. A co-worker of mine was grabbed near the knee by a large female while walking in shallow, densely-vegetated water. The snake bit her pants, which tore, and then struck again, higher this time. Fortunately, the strike did not connect, and my co-worked escaped unharmed.

The researcher involved was well-experienced in finding Anacondas by shuffling about in likely areas, and certainly would have noticed a large snake had she stepped on it. Therefore, I doubt that the snake’s strike was in response to being disturbed. In any event, all other snakes uncovered in this manner tried to escape. I believe that the attack was predatory in nature.

My notes indicate that, at a later date, the same snake (all were marked) rose to the surface and, for want of a better word, “watched” researchers who were poking about nearby. Perhaps she was an especially bold individual…

In the second incident, an Anaconda’s head appeared behind a researcher who was walking among floating aquatic vegetation. The snake reared up and followed the man for several feet while tongue-flicking. A co-worker noticed and grabbed the snake as it struck, causing the animal to miss her (males, the smaller sex, would be unlikely to tackle such large prey) intended target. Due to the “stalking” aspect of this incident, we can rule out defense as a motive.

Are People on the Anaconda’s Menu?

Anaconda attacks have been researched in several books and articles (the events above are recorded in Rivas, J. A. 1999. Life history of the green anaconda. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee).

Several incidents described in Tales of Giant Snakes (Murphy & Henderson, Krieger: 1997) parallel those above, and may involve attempted human predation (the photo on the cover of this book, not well-chosen in my opinion but quite dramatic, was taken during the study in which I assisted).

In his wonderful book Snakes, the Evolution of Mystery in Nature (U. of CA Press: 1997) Harry Greene does not cite any incidents of Anacondas preying upon people.

Clifford Pope’s classic, The Giant Snakes (Alfred Knopf, NY: 1965) recounts several interesting Anaconda encounters, including one wherein a woman battled a 19-footer in order to save a duck, but concludes that all involved defensive actions. Incidentally, Mike Tsalkis is mentioned in The Giant Snakes – older herp enthusiasts will remember the dramatic photos of him wrestling an Anaconda in the 1960’s Life Nature Series book The Land and Wildlife of South America – it’s as clear in my mind today as when I first saw it!

Defensive Attacks

Most snakes will attempt to bite when attacked, and Green Anacondas are particularly vigorous in this regard. I was on hand when the study’s largest snake was found. We stumbled (literally!) upon the 17-foot-long, 215-pounder in a shallow pool that also held another individual nearly as large.

As I groped about below the water, her massive head reared up next to my face. I deflected the strike and grabbed her neck, but was bitten in the process. The tooth that lodged in my wrist as a result remains there today (it is close to a nerve, and not worth removing); other than a bad infection (in me, not the snake!), the “souvenir” has caused no problems.

A large female that we cornered in a riverside hollow seemed to access her options for a time and then charged. She may have come at us open-mouthed, but all happened so quickly that it was hard to tell. She made it through our “line”, but we tracked her progress in the river and captured her shortly thereafter.

Green Anaconda Diets

Captive Anacondas are notorious for being “picky” feeders. Various individuals under my care have refused all but muskrats, ducks or wild-caught Norway Rats.

As a species, however, they take an amazingly range of prey. Meals I’ve observed included, among other animals, a 60 pound deer, Spectacled Caimans, a large side-necked turtle, a Red-Footed Tortoise, wading birds, fish and other Anacondas. Please watch for my future article on this topic.

The World’s Largest Snake

The extinct, Anaconda-like Titanoboa may have reached 43 feet in length and weighed in excess of a ton! The Smithsonian Channel will soon air a special on this incredible beast. Please see this article and video to learn more.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Leopard Frog Shocker – a New Species is Discovered in New York City

Frank Indiviglio — Sat, 31 Mar 2012 16:07:17 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As a native of NYC, I’m no stranger to the natural wonders to be found there. In my time, I’ve filled quite a few notebooks with pleasant surprises…coyotes in Manhattan, Pine Voles in the Bronx, Red Salamanders on Staten Island, 1,000+ insect species, 13 herps, 250+ birds, red and gray fox on the grounds of the Bronx Zoo, and many more. New species have been discovered as well, but most have been small and secretive, such as the undescribed centipede recently found living in Central Park. But the existence of a sizable, gaudy frog that calls loudly each spring, living undetected within city limits, took the herpetological community very much by surprise.

Sharp Ears Lead to a New Species

Northern Leopard Frogs, Rana (Lithobates) pipiens, have been recorded in NYC, but are rarely encountered today. The area also forms the northernmost limit of the range of the Southern Leopard Frog, R. pipiens; never common, it may now be locally extinct.

It was during a search for Leopard Frogs in the NYC borough of Staten Island that a Rutgers’ University doctoral student noticed that the frog calls he was hearing were unique… similar to, yet different from, those of both Northern and Southern Frogs. Hybrids, perhaps?

The “questionable” frogs were located and collected. Lab and genetics studies conducted over the past 2-3 years revealed that the animals were a species new to science. This revelation is especially surprising because Leopard Frogs have been well-studied in the Northeast. The NYS DEC has sought sighting reports for years, and the existence of a third native Leopard Frog was postulated as early as 1936. Yet the new frog remained “hidden in plain sight” until now. The research behind this exciting new discovery is described in the Journal of Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, linked below.

A Small Range, Centered on Yankee Stadium

The frog’s range has been described as entirely within “commuting distance of NYC” – maybe this fact will be used when it comes time to give the new frog a common and Latin name?

The range is believed to extend from Putnam County, NY to Trenton, NJ, with its center at (or formerly at!) Yankee Stadium. Although not recorded near Yankee Stadium or in the Bronx, I suspect researchers will be haunting the Van Cortland and Pelham Bay Parks this year. I’ve found Leopard Frogs at these sites, long ago, and assumed they were Northerners, but now I wonder… (the new species seems impossible to distinguish by sight alone).

The newly-described frog also lives in New Jersey’s Great Swamp. It was here, while on a childhood trip with the NY Herpetological Society, that I first saw Leopard Frogs breeding (I now wonder what species I was looking at….). The Great Swamp remains a magical place for me, and I’m planning another trip in a week or so. Please visit if you have the chance…you can read more about this area in the article below.

Interestingly, the Eastern Gray Tree Frog, Hyla versicolor, another NYC resident, is also distinguished from a look-alike cousin, the Cope’s Gray Tree Frog, H. chrysoscelis, by voice alone…physically, they are identical.

Leopard Frog Diversity

Depending upon the authority followed, 12-17 Leopard Frog species range from Canada to Central America. While superficially similar in appearance, most have unique habitat requirements, and their conservation needs vary greatly. The Chiracahua Leopard Frog, R. chiracahuensis, (which calls while submerged), is one of several that are quite rare; just this month (March, 2012), the federal government set aside 10,000 acres as protected habitat for this species (please see article below).

This underlies the importance of using genetics and other techniques to identify unique populations and species. There is a reason why the newly- discovered Leopard Frog diverged from the 2 relatives with which it overlaps…its future may depend upon our understanding of that process. Please see the article below for information on other Leopard Frogs.

Leopard Frogs in Captivity

Leopard Frogs can be good terrarium subjects, but tend to be high strung; spacious quarters are a necessity. Captive-bred animals, or those reared from tadpoles, do best as pets (Leopard Frogs should not be collected from the wild, and are protected by many states). They may be kept as I’ve described for Green Frogs in this article; please write in for more specific information.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Snake Hunting with Romulus Whitaker – Learning from the Master

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 23 Mar 2012 15:01:44 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. A life engrossed in herpetology has provided me with more adventures than I dared expect. From tagging Leatherback Turtles in St. Croix to heaving Green Anacondas from a Venezuelan swamp, I’ve been quite fortunate. But I’ve always known that natural wonders are also plentiful close at hand. In fact, one of my most exciting herping trips took place in a NYC suburb.

Note: I’d enjoy hearing about your own unforgettable (and “wish you could forget”!) herping experiences. Whether your tales involve garter snakes in the backyard or crocodile monitors in New Guinea, please write in so that I can share them with other readers, thanks.

Turtle Enthusiasts Gather at SUNY Purchase

In July of 1993, I attended an amazing, week-long international conference held in Westchester County, NY – The Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles. Hosted by the dedicated folks at the NY Turtle and Tortoise Society, this gathering of leading professionals and serious hobbyists has, in my experience, yet to be matched. The 500-page conference proceedings are an invaluable resource, and I highly recommend them to anyone with more than a passing interest in turtles and tortoises. You can order the proceedings, for the unbelievable price of $20, here.

Romulus Whitaker

Romulus Whitaker, one of the world’s foremost herpetologists, was in attendance as a speaker. Although most often associated with his work in India, Mr. Whitaker actually grew up in NYC; I had long been in awe of the accomplishments of my fellow New Yorker. At the time, I was a reptile keeper at the Bronx Zoo, working with Indian Gharials that had hatched at the Madras Crocodile Bank, founded by Mr. Whitaker. Curiously, the Gharials went off feed for 5 months each year, despite being kept warm, yet remained active and lost little weight.

I introduced myself to Mr. Whitaker, and right away found that he lived up to his reputation as a pleasant soul, always willing to share his expertise. We spoke often over the next few days, and I learned a great deal about Gharials, Painted Terrapins, Giant River Turtles, Narrow-Headed Softshells and other South Asian reptiles that I cared for (the Gharials, I discovered, were responding to an internal “clock” that informed them it was winter in their native land).

Snake Hunting with a Legend

Towards the end of the conference, Mr. Whitaker asked if I might take him to a spot where he could see some native NY snakes…those that first inspired his interest as a child. It happened that we were in the middle of a hot, dry spell at the time and, what’s more, I wasn’t very familiar with the surrounding area. So there I was, about to go snake hunting with Romulus Whitaker at a time when I’d be lucky to find a Brown Snake!

I made some frantic calls to local contacts and learned that Ward Pound Ridge Reservation would be my best option. I had previously been involved in salamander research there, and was relieved to recall that this largest of Westchester’s preserved areas was something of a herp haven, despite being so close to NYC.

All herpers (or birders, or naturalists of any sort) soon learn that animals rarely if ever show up when you wish, or do what “is expected of them”. But, as is true with of all with a passion for reptiles, Mr. Whitaker showed almost child-like excitement at the prospect of finding even the commonest of snakes. Buoyed by his enthusiasm, I resolved to do my best.

Was I in for a surprise! In quick succession, we found Black Ratsnakes, Black Racers, Eastern Garter Snakes, Northern Watersnakes, Brown Snakes and Northern Red-Bellied Snakes; the most productive near-city trip of my life. Even more surprising, given that we were in a dry spell in mid-July, was the discovery of Dusky, Red-Backed and Slimy Salamanders, and Eastern Spotted Newts. A number of interesting spiders rounded out the day. (Note: all animals were released).

Wonderful Encounters, Near and Far

I’m rarely superstitious, but I believe that the man was truly charmed! It was such a pleasure to see him in action…despite being at the pinnacle of his profession, he was as thrilled to be in the field as my 4-year-old nephew is today. I knew of Mr. Whitaker’s reputation for speed and agility, but was still surprised at how good he was at catching even sun-warmed Black Racers. He leapt headlong into thick cover in his pursuits, and rarely came up empty handed. Although younger, in very good shape, and well-experienced, I was not at all in his class…I’m sure the same remains true today!

What a day, and what a conference. Soon after, Mr. Whitaker departed to begin work with nesting King Cobras in India, and I was off to tag Green Anacondas in Venezuela (please see articles below). But, looking back, I see that we enjoyed our time at Ward Pound Ridge just as much as those “exotic” adventures. We herpers are indeed a lucky bunch…the world, near and far, holds so much of interest for us. I look forward to hearing about your own trips and observations.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio