That Reptile Blog » General Reptile & Amphibian Articles

Frog Facts, Natural History, and Behavior – Notes on Amphibian Pets

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 17 Jun 2013 15:22:14 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Those with an interest in frogs and toads will never be bored…among the 6,200 known species are found some of the world’s most fascinating and unusual animals. Many amphibian pets may, with proper care, live for 10, 20 or even 50 years, and can be wonderful animals to keep and observe. A number engage in complex social behaviors that range from hand-signaling to the feeding of tadpoles…and well-adjusted captives are often not at all shy about doing so before an audience!

I cannot remember a time when I was not fascinated by frogs and toads, and my amphibian-keeping friends and Bronx Zoo colleagues often voice the same sentiment. But what is it that draws us to keep, study and breed these marvelous creatures? True, some species, due to their ability to survive near people, become our first herp pets…as did Bullfrogs, American Toads and others when I was growing up in the Bronx, but there’s more to it than that. Part of the answer, I believe, lies in their amazing diversity of forms and lifestyles…some of which stretch the limits of believability. Please be sure to post your own thoughts and experiences below, as well as any questions you may concerning choosing a pet frog or caring for individual species.

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Range and Habitat

Frogs and toads live on every continent except Antarctica, and have adapted to an amazing variety of habitats – rainforests, deserts, icy streams, mountain lakes, salt marshes, farms, houses, cloud forests, big cities, caves, gardens and many more. Surprises abound…here in North America, Wood Frogs live within the Arctic Circle and American Bullfrogs thrive in the heart of Manhattan!

Size

The smallest frog, discovered in New Guinea in 2011, is barely as large as a pea, while the largest, Africa’s Goliath Frog, measures 3 feet long with legs outstretched. Sometimes weighing in at 9 pounds, male African Bullfrogs are devoted parents (for a time, anyway…at a certain point they will enthusiastically gobble up their progeny!); I still recall being astonished at footage of one defending its tadpoles from 2 young lions!

Unusual Survival Strategies

There are lung-less and tongue-less frogs, gliders and burrowers, frogs that brood their eggs in vocal sacs and others that form lifelong pair bonds. The first time I bred Surinam Toads, and witnessed 100 tiny frogs emerging from their mother’s back (please see photo), I thought I had seen the oddest of all amphibian breeding strategies.

But that amazing experience turned out to be just the tip of the iceberg. In 2011, tree-dwelling, wood-eating tadpoles were uncovered, and we learned that Fringe-Limbed Treefrogs tadpoles feed upon their father’s skin! And tadpoles of the aptly-named Vampire Treefrog have fangs. Please see the articles linked below for further information on these mind-boggling “firsts”.

Behavior in Captivity

Frogs vary greatly in their reactions to captivity, both among the various species and between individuals of the same species. It’s impossible to summarize what you may expect to see, so I’ll just highlight some popular species and “trends”. I have many frog care articles (individual species) posted…please be sure to write in below for more information, advice and links to articles.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Dein Freund der Baum

A surprising number of species, including Poison Frogs, Mantellas, Fire-Bellied Toads, Dwarf Clawed Frogs and African Clawed Frogs, are active by day and always foraging, exploring and interacting. Others, such as the Argentine Horned Frog, may spend days in a single spot. Toads of many if not most species tend to be quite calm and seemingly “trusting” of people, and often take food from the hand. Most nocturnal frogs will eagerly feed by day once they have settled in.

White’s Treefrogs are always ready to perch on one’s arm, but in general frogs should be handled only when necessary, and with wet hands so that the skin’s protective mucus covering is not removed. Horned and African Bullfrogs have tooth-like projections known as odontoid structures, and can bite savagely unless grasped behind the front legs. Poison Frogs and other tiny, agile species are best moved by being urged into a plastic container.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Snake Fungal Disease – Conservationists Fear Emerging Disease Epidemic

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 14 Jun 2013 13:32:16 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Recently I reported on a study that documented declines of 50-90% in 17 populations of 8 snake species (please see article linked below). These findings brought to mind the global amphibian decline that was first uncovered in 1990. Since then, an emerging disease caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatitis has likely caused the extinctions of over 100 frog species. Researchers seeking to avoid a similar crisis among the world’s snakes have now identified an emerging illness, Snake Fungal Disease, as cause for serious concern. Associated with a newly-described fungus, Chrysosporium ophiodiicola, the disease has been found in several species in 9 states (USA), but is likely much more widespread.

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New Victims of a New Fungus

The global snake declines mentioned above first came to light in the late 1990’s, but explanations remain elusive. In 2008, herpetologists became alarmed when Eastern Massasaugas (or Swamp Rattlesnakes) in Illinois and Timber Rattlesnakes in New Hampshire showed evidence of an unusual fungal infection. A fungus (Chrysosporium sp.) that had previously been isolated from captive snakes, but never in the wild, was identified from head lesions on the Timber and Swamp Rattlesnakes. All of the snakes submitted for study expired.

In April of 2013, the USGS National Wildlife Health Center announced the discovery of a fungus new to science, Chrysosporium ophiodiicola. This fungus has been implicated in an emerging disease that is now afflicting snakes in the Eastern and Midwestern USA. Increasing numbers of snakes showing evidence of infection have been found by USGS biologists, who fear that the disease may devastate snake populations.

Is Snake Fungal Disease the “Next Chytrid”?

If the examples set by “Chytrid” (amphibians), White-Nose Syndrome (bats), and other emerging diseases hold true, the USA’s snakes may face a bleak future. Already, a 50% decline in one population of Timber Rattlesnakes has been credited to Snake Fungal Disease. Unfortunately, the lack of long term studies, and the difficulties involved in finding ill snakes, hinders efforts to understand the disease. In fact, it is not even known if Chrysosporium ophiodiicola actually causes Snake Fungal Disease. It is the only species that is always present on afflicted snakes, but other fungi sometimes occur as well.

Snake Fungal Disease has been documented in 9 states, including New York, Minnesota, Florida, New Jersey and Wisconsin, but is believed present but unidentified in others. In addition to the species mentioned earlier, Eastern Racers, Eastern Rat Snakes, Northern Water Snakes, Milk Snakes and Pygmy Rattlers have been infected. Symptoms of the disease include thickened skin, abnormal molts, subcutaneous nodules, ulcers, cloudy eyes (not associated with a molt), scabs or crusted skin, and swelling about the face.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Trista Rada

Your Input and Observations Needed

The USGS is seeking input from those who keep snakes and observe them in the wild. As we know very little about Snake Fungal Disease and its possible effects on snake populations, I urge anyone who may have useful observations to please post a note below. I’ll then be able to advise you as to how best to proceed.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Green Anole Intelligence – Researchers Shocked by Lizard Brainpower

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 31 May 2013 13:30:45 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. I’ve been fascinated by Green Anoles, Anolis carolinensis, since childhood – way back when they were sold as “American Chameleons”. Although they are often ignored by experienced keepers, I have long featured Green Anoles and related species in zoo exhibits, where they never failed to intrigue visitors (and yours truly!). Now, it seems, they are also impressing herpetologists with learning abilities that rival those of some birds. The performances of anoles (two of which did so well that they were dubbed “Plato” and ‘Socrates”) tested at Duke University have challenged the stereotype that small lizards have limited intelligence and problem-solving abilities.

Learning, Adapting and Remembering…

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by IraEskins

The species studied was the Emerald or Puerto Rican Anole, Anolis evermanni. It seems likely that Green Anoles and others sharing similar lifestyles will be found to possess like abilities; further research is in progress.

The anoles were presented with a problem that would not be faced in the wild…relying upon instinct would not provide a solution. The challenge presented was to retrieve an insect that had been placed beneath a plastic lid. Emerald Anoles figured out how to lift the lid more quickly than did the birds that were tested, requiring three less trials. What’s more, the anoles had only one test each day, compared to the given the birds, so the lizards had less experience, and needed to remember their successes or failures for a longer period of time.

When multiple caps of different colors were added, the savvy anoles always chose the correct cap, apparently having associated the color or brightness with a reward. The researchers then switched tactics, placing the insect beneath a lid of a different color, and leaving the original correct choice bare. All of the anoles made initial mistakes, but ‘Socrates” and “Plato”, the individuals mentioned earlier, quickly learned to ignore their earlier lesson and consistently chose the correct lid.

Intelligent Reptiles: Anoles, Monitors, Tortoises and Others

Problem solving, and the ability to modify or discard what has been learned if needed, is considered to be an important indication of intelligence. Some herpetologists believe that anoles are quick learners because they evolved in complex environments occupied by insects that are difficult to capture. Mental acuity may partially explain the phenomenal success of this group, and the huge number of species (391 at last count) that now exist.

But the existence of intelligent reptiles comes as no surprise to those of us who keep and study them…Red-Footed Tortoises learn to negotiate mazes by imitation, and monitors seem capable of outright “plotting”! I’ve been amazed, again and again, by a number of species. Please see the articles linked below to read about examples drawn from observations of captive and wild reptiles.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by James E Powers

Anoles in Captivity

Anoles are widely considered as “beginner’s lizards”, but this does them a great disservice…even the hardiest hold secrets that we have yet to uncover. Most are relatively small, allowing one to observe group interactions in well-planted terrariums. Others, such as the majestic Knight Anole, Anolis equestris (please see photo), approach 2 feet in length and are capable of downing small birds and snakes. All are fascinating to know. Please see this article for information on their care, and be sure to post your questions and observations below.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Giant Snapping Turtles – Size Records from a Survey of 84,000 Turtles

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 24 May 2013 19:01:50 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Stories concerning immense Snapping Turtles (Chelydra serpentina) abound wherever this impressive reptile occurs, but most are difficult to substantiate. I’ve kept and observed this species from childhood. Once I embarked upon a career in herpetology, I had the good fortune of meeting a great many impressive Snapping Turtles and Snapping Turtle researchers, and was able to gather information on some true giants (I’ve encountered fewer Alligator Snapping Turtles, but one under my care weighed 206 pounds!). Today I’ll highlight some interesting facts and figures concerning larger-than-average snappers. I’d also like to draw your attention to a late-breaking threat to their survival. Sadly, a bill currently before the NYS Assembly will, if passed, allow commercial trapping of this magnificent animal. Please see below for further information, and check out this posting by turtle conservationist Allen Salzberg (scroll down to “Snapping Turtles under Attack”) for information on how to register your opposition to this ill-advised legislation.

Record-Sized Snappers

The largest Snapping Turtle I’ve handled tipped the scales at 68 pounds, and added more weight over time (please see photo). Its “straight line” carapace length was 18.6 inches (“straight line” means that the measurement was taken via calipers, as is done for published accounts; stretching a tape measure over the shell’s curve adds to the measurement). The largest wild-caught individual appears to be a 22 inch-long 76.5 pound behemoth captured in New Hampshire (most record-sized Snappers and Alligator Snappers originate from the northern part of the range). Turtles artificially fattened in captivity, such as the 82-86 pound animal frequently cited in field guides, are known.

How Common are Giant Snapping Turtles?

I gleaned the following information from conversations with colleagues and various reports. The turtles involved were collected in the northeastern USA, for the commercial food market, over a 28-year period ending in the early 1990’s.

Of 84,000 Snapping Turtles recorded, only 160 weighed 50 pounds or more. Amazingly, twenty two 50+ pound turtles were collected from a single lake, in a single day (this, of course, is very disturbing, and bodes terribly for the species…please see below). Of these 160 turtles, 3 or 4 topped the 60 pound mark. A 67 pounder held the record as the largest wild-caught snapper until the appearance of the 76.5 pound individual mentioned earlier. Since that time, another of 68 pounds has been collected.

All of the 50+ pound Snapping Turtles were males. The heaviest female on record weighed 44 pounds. Female Alligator Snappers are also substantially smaller than males, which may weigh over 200 pounds. As far as is known, no female of this species has exceeded 70 pounds in weight.

Large Urban Snappers

Uploaded by Frank Indiviglio

If undisturbed, Snappers often adapt to urban and suburban situations. I found two huge males (on land) near the Bronx River, on the grounds of the Bronx Zoo. One, which had an injured jaw, was quite emaciated but still weighed-in at 49 pounds. I installed him in an outdoor pond near the zoo’s Reptile House, where he recovered and “filled out” (see this article ).

Another male of 45 pounds or so was taken to Social Tee’s Animal Rescue, a wonderful facility operated by good friend and reptile expert Robert Shapiro. The reactions of passersby as we attended the huge beast on an East Village (NYC) sidewalk outside Social Tee’s were most amusing; please see this article. Several of the largest animals I’ve seen were taken from surprisingly small bodies of water on Long Island, NY.

An Imminent Survival Threat: Please Help!

As mentioned, legislation now before the NYS Assembly would legalize the trapping of Snapping Turtles. Currently, snappers may only be taken via gun or longbow in NY. Trapping is much more effective than hunting, and could quickly place this iconic reptile, which has beaten the survival odds even in NYC, in jeopardy. Legalized trapping would also result in the incidental capture of rare and endangered species such as Wood, Bog, Blanding’s and Spotted Turtles.

Uploaded by Frank Indiviglio

In the mid 1990’s, I spearheaded a project that sought to document mercury levels in Florida Soft-shell Turtles offered for sale in NYC food markets. Dangerous levels were found, but red tape and other factors intervened and nothing of substance was accomplished. Snapping Turtles have also been shown to accumulate toxins, but this seems not to be of concern to the NYS Senate, which has already passed the trapping bill (the Assembly has not yet voted…please see the link in this article’s Introduction if you wish to help).

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

UVB Light: Why Do Reptiles Need It, and Which UVB Bulbs are Best?

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 10 May 2013 15:29:50 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Our understanding of the role that Ultraviolet B Light plays in the lives of reptiles and amphibians has increased greatly over the last few decades, but we still have much to learn about the needs of individual species. A good deal of conflicting information has been published, and opinions differ even among my well-experienced herpetologist colleagues. Today I’ll provide some basic information on UVB light in natural and captive situations, including some tips as to how best to provide it to the animals under your care. I’d like to stress that many variables will affect your individual situation…please post below for specific information.

What is Ultraviolet B (UVB) Light?

The various types of light are characterized by different wavelengths, which are expressed in nanometers (nm). There are three types of Ultraviolet Light, two of which are important to reptile and amphibian husbandry.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Gary2863 at en.wikipedia

UVB Light has a wavelength of 280- 320 nm. Many reptiles synthesize Vitamin D3 (or, more specifically, Pre-Vitamin D/Cholecalciferol) in their skin when exposed to UVB light. The optimum range for Vitamin D3 synthesis in reptiles is 290-315 nm.

Why is UVB Needed?

Certain reptiles seem dependent upon skin-manufactured Vitamin D3, and cannot use D3 contained in the food that they eat. Therefore, vitamin supplements will not meet their needs. Rather, these reptiles must bask in the sun or under UVB-emitting bulbs.

Reptiles need Vitamin D3 in order to absorb and use Calcium. Without adequate supplies of both nutrients, a condition commonly known as Metabolic Bone Disease will develop. Afflicted animals pull Calcium from their bones and replace it with fibrous tissue, and in the process suffer growth deformities and difficulties in locomotion and feeding.

Which Animals Need UVB?

As far as we know, heliothermic reptiles – those that regularly bask in the sun – need UVB in order to produce Vitamin D3 in the skin. Examples include most semi-aquatic turtles and diurnal (day-active) lizards, and all tortoises and crocodilians. Some of these also seem able to use dietary Vitamin D3 to varying extents, but details are lacking and most do poorly if denied UVB exposure.

Snakes, Common Snapping Turtles and other aquatic turtles, and nocturnal lizards (i.e. Leopard Geckos) are able to obtain D3 from their food. Captives generally do fine without UVB light, provided that sufficient D3 is present in the diet. Many if not all can also manufacture D3 in the skin, so UVB bulbs may be useful as “insurance”.

Amphibians utilize dietary D3, and most seem not to require UVB exposure. There is some evidence, however, that low levels may be of use to Poison Frogs and other diurnal species. As field studies have shown that plant cover does not block all UVB, it follows that diurnal amphibians will receive some exposure. On the other hand, the skin and eggs of some amphibians contain chemicals that filter-out UVB. We still have a great deal to learn.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by JJ Harrison

Providing UVB to Pet Reptiles and Amphibians

Natural sunlight is the best source of UVB, but please remember that overheating can occur quickly, and that UVB does not penetrate glass or most plastics. Screen cages offer options in some situations…please see this article for further information.

Florescent UVB Bulbs

In recent tests, the Zoo Med 5.0 and 10.0 Bulbs were found superior to several other models (please see this article). The highest UVB levels occur within 6 inches of the bulb; UVB output declines by 80-90% at 18 inches. Therefore, your pet’s basking site should be within 6-8 inches of the bulb.

Basking sites of varying distances should be provided, as reptiles will adjust their exposure as needed. Some chameleons, for example, modify their basking behavior in accordance with the Vitamin D3 content of their diets (please see article linked below). If a basking site cannot be arranged near the bulb, a shallow “basking enclosure” may be necessary…please post below for further information.

Florescent bulbs stop emitting UVB after a time, but will continue to give off visible light. Therefore, it is important to make a note of your bulb’s useful life. Zoo Med offers a free email “replacement reminder” service.

Florescent UVB Bulbs provide little heat. Situating one near an incandescent basking bulb will ensure that your pet receives UVB exposure each time it seeks warmth.

Halogen and Mercury Vapor UVB Bulbs

Halogen and Mercury Vapor Bulbs generally emit higher levels of UVB than florescent bulbs, and broadcast it over greater distances. They also give-off heat, and so may eliminate the need for an additional heat source.

Full Spectrum Bulbs

Aquarium bulbs labeled as “Full Spectrum” usually emit little if any UVB.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by JamieS93

Which UVB Bulb is Best for my Pet?

Your pet’s natural will determine which UVB bulb to select. Unfortunately, however, few studies have been done on the specific needs of individual reptiles. But experience has provided important lessons…please post below for information on the animals in your collection.

In general, UVB exposure is very important to desert-dwellers, species that bask frequently in the wild, and young, growing individuals.

Low-output UVB bulbs, such as the Zoo Med 2.0 , are designed for use with Arrow Poison Frogs and other amphibians that may benefit from some exposure. If you decide to use a low output UVB, be sure to provide your frogs with shelters that allow them to avoid the light.

Measuring UVB

UVB meters provide an accurate means of measuring your pet’s exposure and will also enable you to keep track of the decline in UVB output as your bulbs age. As reflection from various surfaces, the type of terrarium cover used and other factors can radically affect the amount UVB that reaches your pet, a UVB meter is an essential item for every serious reptile keeper. Please post below for links to suppliers.

What About Ultraviolet A (UVA) Light?

UVA light has a wavelength of 320-400 nanometers. Although perhaps not essential, UVA can greatly improve your pet’s quality of life and breeding potential.

UVA helps regulate circadian rhythms, seasonal changes in activity levels, appetite and other important processes, and may be critical to successful reproduction in certain reptiles. Please see the article linked below for further information.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Providing UVA to Reptiles and Amphibians

Vitamin D and Chameleon Basking Behavior: an Interesting Study

Post from: That Reptile Blog

UVB Light: Why Do Reptiles Need It, and Which UVB Bulbs are Best?

The post UVB Light: Why Do Reptiles Need It, and Which UVB Bulbs are Best? appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

The Best Humidity Gauges for Reptile, Amphibian and Invert Habitats

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 15 Apr 2013 15:06:45 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Like most lifelong animal keepers, I consider myself to be a fairly good judge of humidity levels in the home terrariums and zoo exhibits under my care. But when I began working in new buildings equipped with state-of-the-art hygrometers (humidity gauges), I quickly realized that I had much to learn. I was especially surprised to discover how widely humidity levels can vary within even a small enclosure, and how this can affect every facet of an animal’s life. The accurate, easy-to-use humidity gauges now available offer us the chance to provide better care to our charges and perhaps to uncover important new details about their lives.

Recent Innovations in Humidity Monitoring

Over the past several decades, hobbyists and zoos have greatly expanded the number of rare and delicate species that can be kept and bred in captivity. Many of these successes have been due to an increased understanding of the roles that UVB, temperature, diet and other such factors play in their lives.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Luc Viatour

Humidity levels have also been taken into account by serious animal owners, but this topic has been given less attention than others. This is partially because many reptiles, and some amphibians and invertebrates, can meet their needs by soaking in a water bowl or retreating to a moist shelter. But the real obstacle has been the unavailability of affordable hygrometers designed for use with animals. Happily, humidity gauges that fit just about every terrarium and budget are now available, and all are very simple to use (since I can do it!).

Areas of Special Concern

While all animals are to some degree affected by humidity levels, certain captives require closer monitoring than others. Humidity levels are crucial when most species are shedding/molting. Scorpions, centipedes, tarantulas, hermit crabs, mantids and other invertebrates easily become, as we say, “stuck in the molt” when humidity levels are too low. While we can sometimes assist them in this situation, most die.

Reptiles and amphibians usually survive dry molts, but problems ranging from fungal/bacterial infections beneath old skin to digit loss and retained eye caps may result. Poison frogs and other small, highly active amphibians, and those that remain in the open when resting, as do most treefrogs, are especially at risk from overly-dry conditions. Please see the articles below for further information on herp and invertebrate shedding concerns.

Humidity plays an important role in activity levels, cutaneous respiration, reproduction, immune system function, skin health and a wide variety of other processes. With so many amphibians in dire need of captive breeding these days, I believe it is critical that we begin to record our observations concerning humidity levels. Please consider using a hygrometer and relaying your thoughts by posting below; I’ll be sure to pass the information along, thanks.

The Zilla Humidity and Temperature Digital Gauge

This is my favorite gauge for average to large terrariums. The separate probes for temperature and humidity attach to the glass via suction cups, allowing for easy movement so that various areas of the terrarium (cave, basking site, etc.) can be monitored. I find the thin, 59 inch-long wires connected to the probes to be especially valuable. In smaller enclosures, the wires can be rolled up and secured with a twist-tie. The unit itself measures only 4 x 1 ½ inches, and is quite unobtrusive. It remains outside the terrarium, and features a built-in stand and a notch for wall mounting.

The Zilla Gauge monitors a humidity range of 10-99% and temperatures from -58 F to 158 F (if your pet requires conditions outside of those ranges, it likely belongs in a zoo!). “Comfort”, “Wet” and “Dry” messages are displayed at certain readings. While these are general in nature and will not apply to all species, many hobbyists find them useful. Temperatures can be displayed in either Fahrenheit or Celsius.

The unit also features an alarm, which can function as a reminder to check the terrarium or administer medications (if you sleep as lightly as I, it might also serve as an alarm clock!).

The Zoo Med Dual Humidity Gauge and Thermometer

Although marketed for use with hermit crabs, this small (3” x 1 ½”) gauge is ideal for small to moderately-sized terrariums housing most any species. Despite being quite inexpensive, it is accurate and stands up well to both damp and hot conditions.

The temperature and humidity levels are displayed side-by-side on brightly-colored, easy-to-read dials. “Dry”, “Optimum” and “Wet” ranges (for hermit crabs) are shown in different colors. The gauge attaches to glass with a sturdy Velcro strip.

Being colorful and simple to read, the Zoo Med Gauge is a great way to introduce youngsters to the concept of monitoring and recording environmental conditions. I plan to present several to my 5-year old nephew (shown here examining his “pet” mosquito larvae, much to his mom’s chagrin!) for use with his fire salamanders and domino roaches.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

The Best Terrarium Cleaning Products and Methods

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 01 Apr 2013 16:01:31 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. During a long career zoo career that found me working with animals ranging from ants to elephants, I’ve had many occasions to review veterinary and pathology reports. In doing so, I’ve come to understand that zoonotic diseases – those that can pass from animals to people – are a potential concern in the keeping of any pet. Most people associate Salmonella, the best known zoonotic, with reptiles, but nearly any animal, including dogs, cats and birds, may harbor this bacterium. Fortunately, Salmonella and other infections can be avoided by following a few relatively simple rules.

Note: This article is not meant to replace a doctor’s advice, nor is it intended to discourage pet ownership. By observing a few simple precautions, the most commonly-encountered problems can be effectively managed. Please post your questions and concerns below, and be sure to consult your doctor or veterinarian for specific information concerning disease prevention and treatment.

What Are the Risks?

Uploaded to Wikipedia by Jens Raschendorf.

If we are to safely enjoy our pets, it is important that we become aware of the concerns while maintaining a reasonable perspective.

For example, while it is true that Salmonella bacteria are likely present in all reptile and amphibian digestive tracts, merely handling an animal that carries Salmonella will not cause an infection. Salmonella bacteria are harmful to people only if ingested. Consider also that dogs may potentially carry at least 17 harmful microorganisms, yet the vast majority of dog owners are never troubled by health problems. Similarly, the same can be said of reptile owners, zookeepers and herpetologists – Salmonella infections are not typical.

Please see this article for information concerning Mycobacteria.

How Infections Are Contracted

Understanding how bacteria are transferred from animals to people is the key to avoiding Salmonella infections. Salmonella bacteria are shed in the feces and can live on counters, tools, food bowls, animal skin and other surfaces for several days.

Reptile skin, water bowls, terrarium substrates and other surfaces may harbor bacteria that have been shed in feces. People can become infected and/or spread the bacteria to others if they handle a reptile (or its cage, etc.) and then eat or touch surfaces that come in contact with food before washing properly.

Basic Rules

Always wash your hands with hot, soapy water after handling animals and tools used to service aquariums or terrariums, and after being in an area where animals are allowed to roam free.

Stop working with your pets if you receive a cut or break in the skin. Exposing a wound to terrarium or aquarium water after applying an antibiotic will negate the value of the medicine. Seek a doctor’s advice.

Wear gloves or use a substrate scooper when cleaning animal enclosures. Disposable gloves, available in pharmacies, are fine for most terrariums. Coralife Aqua Gloves, which reach to the elbow, are very useful for aquarium work. Wear goggles if splashing water is a concern.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by , LiquidGhoul.

Reptiles should not be allowed into kitchens, dining rooms or other areas where food is prepared or eaten. Bathroom sinks and tubs, and areas where infants are bathed, should also be off-limits.

Reptiles should not be allowed to roam about the home (this presents a fire hazard as well). If it is necessary to keep a reptile un-caged, it should be confined to an easily-cleaned room from which human food and at-risk individuals (small children and elderly or immune-compromised individuals) are excluded.

Terrariums, aquariums, food bowls and other animal-related items should not be cleaned in kitchen or bathroom sinks. A plastic tub should be used if a basement or “animal-only” sink is not available. Rinse water and fecal material should be disposed of in a toilet, not a sink or tub. Clean accidental spills with a product that contains bleach.

Never start a siphon by sucking on its end with your mouth. Always fill it with water to create suction or use a hand-operated siphon starter.

Do not drink, eat or smoke while working with animals. Never kiss your pet or feed it from bowls used for your own meals.

The Center for Disease Control guidelinescontain additional precautions. Please review them carefully.

Cleaning Terrariums, Aquariums and Related Items

Reptile enclosures, food bowls and the like should be cleaned with Nolvasan, a reptile-safe commercial cleaner, or a bleach solution (1 cup bleach per gallon of water). Zoo Med Wipe Out Terrarium Cleaner kills a wide range of commonly-encountered bacteria, including Salmonella and Pseudomonas.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Pedro Reina.

Amphibians, invertebrates and fishes are especially sensitive to chemicals. Their terrariums and aquariums should be cleaned with fish-safe products or with the bleach solution described above.

Cleaning implements should be soaked in any of the aforementioned cleaners before being re-used. Be sure to remove feces and other organic material before soaking. Rinse the tools well after removal from the soak solution. Immersion in water containing an instant de-chlorinator is recommended for hard-to-clean items (i.e. siphon and filter tubes) that are to be used with fishes or amphibians.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Supplies for Red Eared Sliders and Similar Turtles

thatpetblog — Thu, 28 Mar 2013 17:16:25 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Tempted to buy that tiny green turtle being offered for a mere dollar or two? While Red-Eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans) can make an interesting and responsive pets, their care is far more complicated (and expensive!) than most new owners expect. In perhaps no other animal is the distinction between initial price and long term cost of care so great. Furthermore, the care guidelines offered by many sellers are often overly-simplified and inaccurate. Following is a list of everything you’ll need to provide a proper home for Red Eared Sliders and other species with similar lifestyles (i.e. Map, Painted and Side-Necked Turtles, Cooters), along with notes concerning each item. An in-depth article about Slider care and natural history is posted here.

Do Not Buy Hatchlings!

Although newly-hatched Sliders are still offered for sale, usually at fairs, carnivals and street stalls, it is illegal to sell them (or any turtle less than 4 inches in length) in the USA, and has been since 1975. The law was enacted by the Food and Drug Administration in response to Salmonella outbreaks linked to hatchlings. For further information on the Salmonella- turtle connection, please see this article.

Because Sliders grow much faster than most owners expect, turtle rescue organizations are swamped with unwanted pets. Please consider adopting rather than purchasing a turtle; please post below if you need adoption assistance.

The Aquarium

Sliders grow rapidly, and may attain full size within 2-4 years. Females reach 8-12 inches in both length and width (think large dinner plate) while males generally top out at 6 inches. Being quite active, an adult female will require a 55-75 gallon aquarium at minimum; a male might get by in a 30 gallon, but more room (for either sex) is preferable.

Zoo Med’s Turtle Tub makes an excellent home for large and small Sliders.

Children’s wading pools or koi ponds are often easier to manage than aquariums, especially if you have more than one turtle. Plastic storage bins can easily be modified into low-cost turtle homes. Please post below for further information.

Basking Site

Red-Eared Sliders need a non-abrasive surface on which to rest and dry off. The basking site should be located beneath a heat and UVB bulb, so that your turtle can attain its ideal body temperature and manufacture Vitamin D3 within the skin (see Heat and UVB Bulbs, below).

I prefer basking sites that are suspended at the water’s surface, as these do not take up valuable swimming space. Zoo Med’s Turtle Dock features a sloping ramp and is available in several sizes.

Larger individuals may partially submerge platforms that attach to aquarium glass, and hence will not be able to completely dry-off while basking. The Penn Plax Turtle Pier has a gravel reservoir to offset the weight of larger turtles, and also provides a sub-surface hiding and resting spot.

Cork bark also works well, especially if wedged between the aquarium’s sides.

Filter

You can do without a filter if your turtle lives in an easily-emptied plastic bin. However, filtration is essential if you maintain these messy feeders in an aquarium. A wide variety of submersible and canister filters, designed specifically for use with turtles, are now available. Please see this article to read about my favorite types. A siphon will simplify waste removal and partial water changes.

Feeding Enclosure

Although not essential, a separate feeding enclosure, such as a plastic sweater box, will ease the filter’s job and limit the frequency of water changes. Please see this article for more on maintaining water quality.

Water Heater

Use a “turtle proof” submersible heater to maintain your Slider’s water at 76-82 F and a reptile thermometer to monitor water and air temperature.

Heat Bulb

An incandescent “spot type” bulb should be employed to heat the basking site to 85-90 F. The basking light will usually warm the rest of the enclosure sufficiently (78-82 F). If additional heat is needed, red/black night bulbs or ceramic heater-emitters may be added.

Ultra Violet-B (UVB) Bulb

Red Eared Sliders need daily exposure to UVB light. Your turtle should be able to bask within 6-12 inches of a high-output UVB florescent bulb, such as the Zoo Med 10.0 . Mercury vapor and halogen bulbs broadcast UVB over greater distances, and emit beneficial UVA radiation as well.

Natural sunlight is ideal, but be aware that UVB rays do not penetrate glass or plastic, and that fatal overheating can occur quickly.

Substrate

Sliders are best kept in bare-bottomed aquariums; gravel traps dirt, complicates cleaning, and may be swallowed.

Food

Young Red-Eared Sliders are largely carnivorous, but increasingly consume plants as they mature. By adulthood, vegetation forms the bulk of the diet.

Reptomin Food Sticks and trout chow provide excellent nutrition; either can serve as up to 50% of the diet.

Dandelion, kale, mustard and collard greens, romaine, endive and aquarium plants such as Elodea, Anachris, Watersprite and Duckweed should be offered.

Whole freshwater fishes such as minnows and shiners are the best source of calcium (and other valuable nutrients) for turtles. Offer fish at least once weekly, but use goldfishes sparingly (please see this article).

Other important food items that should be a regular part of the diet include earthworms, canned snails and fresh or freeze-dried shrimp and krill. Crickets, mealworms, waxworms and other insects may be offered on occasion.

Although best known to most folks as pets, Sliders also have a fascinating natural history. Please see the articles below to read about their lives in the wild.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

World’s Oldest Dinosaur is Discovered and Studied

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 19 Mar 2013 14:08:29 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Recent studies of a creature known as Nyasasaurus parringtoni indicate that dinosaurs may have appeared over 240 million years ago – 10-15 million years earlier than was previously believed. Its fossils, unearthed in Tanzania, also shed light on where dinosaurs first arose and how they spread to new environments. I’ve also summarized some other recent paleontological surprises concerning the oldest dinosaur nest, dinosaur flea, bird, and organic molecule.

Dinosaur or Silesaur?

Nyasasaurus parringtoni lived in the Mid-Triassic period, alongside dinosaur-like reptiles known as Silesaurids (please see drawing). The dating of its fossils to this period is significant, because true dinosaurs were likely very rare at the time.

Some paleontologists believe that Nyasasaurus is a Silesaurid rather than a dinosaur. However, its upper arm bone bears a bony crest that held the shoulder muscles in place. Known as the deltopectorus crest, this structure is found in all other dinosaurs, but not in Silesaurids.

Photo uploaded to Wikipedia by Dmitry Bogdanov.

Dinosaur Origins

The Nyasasaurus fossils were originally found in the 1930’s, but their significance was not apparent until recently. Their collection site (Tanzania) lends strength to the theory that dinosaurs first made their appearance in Pangaea, the ancient southern land mass that existed before the continents began to break away from one another.

Nyasasaurus was likely 6.5 – 10 feet long, but we do not known how it moved about or what it fed upon.

Prior to the discovery of Nyasasaurus, the oldest known dinosaurs were small South American carnivores…but they are a mere 225-230 million years of age!

Oldest Dinosaur Nest

On my frequent visits to the American Museum of Natural History, I never fail to visit the amazing fossil of a small dinosaur on its nest, uncovered some time ago in China. In January of 2012, a Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences article described dinosaur nests that are 100 million years older than the famous nest exhibited at the AMNH (please see artist’s recreation).

Discovered in South Africa’s Golden Gate Highlands National Park, the nests belonged to a herbivorous dinosaur, Massosponylus carinatus. They have been dated to the Jurassic Period, 190 million years ago.

The Oldest Blood-Sucking Parasite

Today’s fleas, although averaging a mere 0.1 inches in length, are very efficient parasites that cause their hosts a great deal of discomfort. But they pale in comparison to the nearly 1 inch-long ancient monsters unearthed in China. These fleas, which lived during the Mid-Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Periods, had huge mouthparts that could likely pierce dinosaur skin.

Studies of preserved fleas have helped us to understand insect evolution. The Chinese dinosaur fleas are believed to have evolved from scorpion flies, which fed by sucking plant sap. Unlike modern fleas, they crawled rather than jumped.

The Oldest Bird

Fossils of the creature known as Archaeopteryx came to light just 2 years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. Possessing both reptilian and bird-like characteristics, Archaeopteryx seemed to validate Darwin’s theory of evolution. But on the 150th anniversary of its discovery (September, 2012), an article in the journal Nature identified Archaeopteryx as a feathered dinosaur rather than a true bird.

Photo uploaded to Wikipedia by Nobu Tamura.

This finding was based on the work of paleontologists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, who discovered a 4-winged descendant of Archaeopteryx. This creature, clearly a dinosaur, helped put to rest the theory that Archaeopteryx was an early bird. With Archaeopteryx out of the picture, the oldest known birds are Epidexipteryx (please see artist’s re-creation) and Epidentrosaurus, 160 million-year-old residents of modern day Inner Mongolia.

The Oldest of the Old

The oldest known organic molecule was found in the fossil of a Crinoid, a creature that pre-dated the dinosaurs by millions of years. Ocean-dwelling Crinoids, plant-like animals resembling modern-day Sea Lilies, lived in Ohio, Indiana and Iowa some 350 million years ago.

According to an article in the current (March, 2013) issue of Geology, intact Quinone cells have been found in Crinoid fossils. Quinones, which are present in today’s Sea Lilies, likely functioned as toxins or pigments. Unfortunately, no DNA was recovered.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,
Frank Indiviglio

Working with the False Gharial – One of the World’s Largest Crocodiles

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 13 Mar 2013 14:42:58 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. I find it difficult to express just how fortunate I’ve been in having had the chance to work with 12 Crocodilian species in the wild and captivity. Breeding Dwarf Caimans, wrestling Orinoco Crocodiles into boats, getting up close and personal to Gomek (a giant, now famous Salt Water Croc), rearing Indian Gharials…these and many other experiences remain etched in my memory. One species in particular cemented my interest in the group, and remains as much a mystery today as it was when I first saw it some 40 years ago – the massive False Gharial, Tomistoma schlegelii.

A Mysterious Giant

The False Gharial, which may exceed 16 feet in length, is the least-studied of the large Crocodilians, and among the rarest. It has been bred in captivity only 3 times in the last 60 years (once at the Bronx Zoo, prior to my tenure) and few US zoos exhibit them today; 28 reside in European zoos, while South America is home to 1 specimen.

A secretive nature keeps the False Gharial shrouded in mystery. The few field studies that have been carried out (please see below) indicate that it has been exterminated from much of its range.

My Introduction to the False Gharial

During my years with the Bronx Zoo, I was lucky enough to have 4 adult False Gharials under my care, including the only proven breeders in the Western Hemisphere. They were huge beasts, the largest of which topped 600 pounds in weight. Each had been in the collection for 20-30 years when I began working with them. I clearly recall seeing these same animals when visiting the zoo as a teenager, but their increased size did not fully register until I dug out some old food cards. Upon arrival at the zoo, they were feeding upon goldfish…they now downed whole chickens without effort, and were capable of taking much larger meals!

I was especially struck by the False Gharials’ jaws. I had previously worked with a related species, the Indian Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). The Indian Gharial feeds primarily upon fish that are captured with uniquely-long and slender jaws. The False Gharial’s jaws are also elongated, but they are in no way slender! Up close, the massive bones and muscles that anchor these powerful weapons are readily apparent. It was easy to imagine that, as I had read in field reports, wild False Gharials regularly dined on Proboscis Monkeys and other sizable mammals.

Mom Salvages my Honor…perhaps

The difference between False Gharial and Indian Gharial jaws was brought home to me when I first tried to urge a False Gharial out of my way while servicing its exhibit. With Indian Gharials, there was a chance that the jaw might be damaged if an animal struck the “croc pole” (a thick pole used to nudge crocs and keep them at a safe distance); the first time a male False Gharial hit my pole it splintered and flew out of my hands. He and his mate charged and, now unarmed, I fled out the exhibit service door.

While in retreat I noticed my mother, a long-term Bronx Zoo volunteer, pointing me out to a group of school children. Fearing I had worried her (again!), I came out from behind the exhibit. I found my mom, ever-confident in my abilities, explaining to the children that experience and training had enabled me to know just how to react in this dangerous situation. Not wishing to disillusion her or her wide-eyed audience, I did not point out that adrenaline and common sense were largely responsible for my inglorious exit!

False Gharials vs. Cuban Crocodiles

False Gharials drew me into an even more dangerous incident some years later. Seven Cuban Crocodiles (Crocodylus rhombifer) broke through a wall and invaded an exhibit housing a pair of False Gharials. I and two co-workers waded in and tried to separate the enraged combatants while also protecting one another from attack. In the ensuing two hour battle, we escaped injury and were able to separate the animals. Many bore bite wounds, but crocs have amazing immune systems, and all healed without further complications.

Transporting Crocodiles

I’ve helped to grab, tie and transport adult False Gharials on four occasions, and each experience confirmed my belief that these heavily-armored creatures are among the world’s most physically impressive reptiles. I’ve “wrestled” with other large crocs in the course of my work (please see Marsh Crocodile photo), but none battled as hard or seemed as “indestructible” as did False Gharials.

Sadly, I learned that they too have weaknesses. In time, zoos began experimenting with sedatives as a means of rendering crocodile relocations less dangerous for both keeper and kept. Unfortunately, little was known about the effects of medications designed primarily for mammals, and we lost two adult False Gharials to complications arising from the use of Ketamine.

Natural History

Although some ambitious field studies have been undertaken (please see “Further Reading”, below), we know surprisingly little of the False Gharial’s life in the wild. Unlike most large crocodilians, it is quite secretive, and dwells in habitats that are difficult to survey.

Taxonomy

The False Gharial is placed in the Order Crocodylia (25 species) and Family Crocodylidae (16 species). Recent evidence of its relationship to the Indian Gharial may lead to a reclassification in the Family Gavialidae.

Range

Once found throughout much of Southeast Asia, the False Gharial is now extinct in Thailand, Vietnam and Sulawesi. Today it survives only on the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra and Kalimantan. In the early 2000’s, a remnant population was discovered in western Java. Additional surveys are needed (please check here http://tomistoma.org/pa/ for survey updates).

Habitat

The False Gharial inhabits heavily-vegetated peat swamps and slow-moving “black water” rivers. There is evidence that it occasionally enters the tidal portions of certain rivers.

Diet

The long, slender jaws of young False Gharials indicate that they are fish specialists. The jaws thicken with age, allowing adults to take monkeys, small deer, birds, snakes, turtles and other creatures.

Reproduction

Females scrape together a mound of dead vegetation in which to deposit their 20-30 large eggs, but appear not to guard the nest or young. Eggs are likely lost to wild pigs, Water Monitors and other predators.

Conservation

The False Gharial is extinct in several countries and is threatened elsewhere by dam building, gold mining, incidental capture in fishing nets, and the over-harvesting of fish. Fewer than 2,500 adults are believed to remain, but accurate surveys are lacking. Fortunately, several populations are located within reserves that also shelter Orangutans and other creatures better known to the public.

The only predator of larger False Gharials appears to be the Salt Water Crocodile, Crocodylus porosus.

The False Gharial is classified as “Endangered” by the IUCN and is listed on Appendix I of CITES.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Fishing for Alligators in NYC’s Sewers

Field Report: False Gharials in Kalimantan

False Gharial Interest Group

One Ton Crocodile Captured

False Gharial in enclosure image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by kennyannydenny

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Working with the False Gharial – One of the World’s Largest Crocodiles

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