Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Postdlf

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here.  The St. Lucia Racer or Ornate Ground Snake, Liophis ornatus, has the unenviable distinctions of being both the world’s rarest snake and the species with the smallest range…it may even be the rarest creature on the planet.  The entire population – 11 individuals at last count – is confined to a 30 acre Caribbean island off St. Lucia.

Ever since reading Archie Carr’s wonderful books as a child, I’ve been drawn to the Caribbean’s islands and coastlines.  As luck would have it, I eventually found myself working at Tortuguero, Costa Rica – the very site where much of his ground-breaking Green Turtle research was done.  There I became hooked on the region’s fantastic array of creatures, and endeavored to become familiar with as many as possible.  In time, I tagged Leatherback Sea Turtles on St. Croix, collected Bahaman Brown Racers, Alsophis vudii, on several islands, and vowed to find again a large, flying Mole Cricket that once stopped me in my tracks on St. Lucia.  Unfortunately, Caribbean animals suffer some of the world’s highest extinction rates.  In fact, the St. Lucia racer was “officially extinct” for nearly 40 years.  Happily, we now know that it still holds on…but just barely.

“Hello Mongooses…Goodbye Snakes”

The St Lucia Racer, known locally as the Kouwes, was once quite common.  That changed in the late 1800’s, when Asian Mongooses were imported from India to battle the Black and Norway Rats that were ravaging the cane fields (a naturalist’s journal from that time recounts that the British officer responsible, unsure of the proper plural form of “mongoose”, wrote his superior with this request: “Please send a mongoose” – and while you’re at it, please send several more”!).

The diurnal mongooses rarely encountered the nocturnal rats, but they made short work of many of the island’s reptiles, including the racer.  Also facing threats from habitat loss due to goat grazing and development, racer populations plummeted, and the species was declared extinct in 1936.

Intelligent and adaptable, the Asian Mongoose has devastated amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, birds and small mammals throughout the West Indies.  I saw them frequently on St. Croix, where they have even learned to locate the deep-set nests of Leatherback Turtles.  Two St. Lucian snakes, the endemic St. Lucia Fer-de-Lance and the St. Lucia Boa (Boa constrictor orophias), exact revenge by occasionally indulging in a mongoose dinner, but this has no real effect on their numbers.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Antonio de Castro Junior

A Species Resurfaces

The St. Lucia Racer remained “extinct” until 1973, when a single specimen was found on Maria Major, a tiny, mongoose-free island off St. Lucia.  But joy over the species’ rediscovery was short-lived, and after years without further sightings it was again feared to be extinct.  In 2011, however, biologists from the Durrell Wildlife Trust and other organizations made a detailed survey of the island, and in the process they turned up 11 St. Lucia Racers.  The snakes were outfitted with transponders and released back on Maria Major, which is now protected as a wildlife reserve.

St. Lucia Racers spend much of their time in lizard burrows among rocky thorn scrub and cactus thickets, and hence are difficult to locate.  Most researchers put the total population at no more than 18, but only 11 have actually been confirmed.

Very little is known about the St. Lucia Racer’s natural history, and nothing of its reproductive biology, so captive breeding is not considered an option.  There is some evidence the eggs of lizards such as the St. Lucia Whiptail (Cnemidophorus vanzoi, please see photo) make up much of its diet, but it likely takes lizards, frogs, small mammals and birds as well.

St. Lucia’s Other Reptiles and Amphibians

St. Lucia is home to approximately 28 reptile and amphibian species, only 19 of which are native.  Seven of these, including the St Lucia Fer-de-Lance, Bothrops caribbaeus, the St. Lucia Thread Snake, Leptotyphus bruilei, the Cribo, Clelia errabunda, and the St. Lucia Racer, are endemic.  At six inches in length and a mere 1/8th inch in width, the St. Lucia Thread Snake is the world’s second smallest serpent (another Caribbean island, Barbados, is home to the world’s smallest snake, L. carlae; please see photo and article linked below).

Unfortunately, six of St. Lucia’s native species are likely extinct, but detailed surveys are needed to confirm this.  Those believed to have vanished from St. Lucia are the Antillean Skink, Maybuya maybouya, the Antiguan Pygmy Gecko, Sphaerodactylus elegantulius, the Lesser Antillean Pygmy Gecko, S. vincenti, the Mountain Chicken (a relative of the Smoky Jungle Frog), Leptodactylus fallax, the Martinique Whistling Frog, Eleutherodactylus martinicensis, and the Cribo.  In addition, 5 subspecies unique to the St. Lucia are threatened with extinction.

Another Caribbean Rarity

Until being displaced by the St. Lucia Racer, the Antiguan Racer, Alsophis antigua, was considered to be the world’s rarest snake (please see photo of related Antilles Racer).   Driven to the brink by mongooses, goats and rats, only 50 remained by 1999, and the species was declared extinct 1936 (and again in 2005).  Fortunately, a small population was recently found on mongoose-free Great Bird Island.  Predator control and relocation programs have increased the total number of Antiguan Racers to 500+ individuals on four islands.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,
Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

World’s Smallest Snake is Discovered on Barbados (2008)

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St. Lucia Racer, World’s Rarest Snake (Population 11) is Rediscovered

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The Year of the Snake…your input needed

The Year of the Snake effort is spearheaded by Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, and was preceded the Year of the Turtle and the Year of the Lizard.  PARC will be joined by the Center for Conservation Biology, the Orianne Society and other notables (please click here for a complete list).  In addition to field research and captive breeding programs, public education will be a major component of each group’s activities.  I was very glad to see that input from interested non-professionals will be solicited.  This is an all-too-rare step, despite the fact that professionals, being limited in both numbers and financial resources, cannot begin to address the myriad conservation needs of the world’s threatened snakes.  Please see “What Can I Do”?, below, if you wish to participate.

Threats

Many snakes are declining for well-known reasons, while others face mysterious threats. In several cases, populations have declined by 90% in well-protected areas, a distressing phenomenon that has also been seen among frogs (i.e. the now extinct Golden Toad).  I’ll mention just a few below, please write in for further information.

Disease

Most herp enthusiasts are well-aware of the Chytrid fungus epidemic, which has been responsible for the extinctions of 200+ amphibian species.  Recently, a fungus that was previously believed limited to captive snakes, Chrysosporium, has been found in wild Timber Rattlesnakes.  Although much work remains to be done, there is reason for concern.

Collection

In the USA and abroad, snakes are collected for the pet, leather, medicinal and food trades.  Even where, as in the USA, strict regulations are in place, authorities are hampered by poor funding and a lack of management plans.  Snakes are extremely difficult to study, and we usually know nothing about the effects of collection (legal or illegal) until drastic declines become apparent.  

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

This problem is well-known to all environmentally conscious people, so I’ll just mention 1 sad statistic contained in a recent PARC newsletter:

Ninety-eight percent of the Longleaf Pine habitat in the USA’s southeastern Coastal Plain is gone.  This unique ecosystem was home to many at-risk species, including Diamondback Rattlesnakes and Southern Hognose, Indigo and Pine Snakes.

Invasive Species

Mention invasive species and snakes today, and many people will think of Burmese Pythons in Florida or Brown Treesnakes wiping out nearly all of Guam’s forest birds.  But snakes also suffer the effects of introduced species.  On Antigua, Black Rats and Indian Mongooses, both non-native, brought the Antiguan Racer (Alsophis antiguae) to the brink of extinction.  Once reduced to a mere 50 individuals, the total population now numbers nearly 900, but is far from secure. 

The subtler effects of introduced species can be seen in the USA’s Sagebrush Steppe Ecosystem, where invasive Cheatgrass has drastically diminished rodent populations key to the survival of the Great Basin Rattlesnake, Crotalus oreganus lutosus. 

Year of the Snake Programs

A number of new conservation efforts have already been initiated, and several established programs have been revitalized.  

Although designated as a threatened species by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1978, wild populations of the Eastern Indigo Snake, Drymarchon couperi, remain depressed. The Orianne Society has enlisted the help of private breeders, zoos, universities, museums and others in establishing a breeding and management plan. 

Populations of the Armenian Viper, Montivipera raddei, and related species have declined by up to 88% in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran.  The St. Louis Zoo has worked to establish 3 preserves in the region, and continues research there. 

Limited in distribution to islands within Lake Erie, the Lake Erie Watersnake, Nerodia sipedon insularis, has rebounded and been removed from the Endangered Species List.  Control of the invasive Round Goby, which displaced the snake’s preferred prey, and a public education program, led to the recovery. 

What’s Next…What can I Do?

The legendary Carl Kauffeld, author of such gems as Snakes, the Keeper and the Kept and Snakes and Snake Keeping, put the Staten Island Zoo on the herp world’s map.  I haunted its famed reptile house as a child, but was far too shy to approach the man himself.  Decades later, I was thrilled to serve as consultant when the building was renovated.  I’m happy to report that we have shifted the collection’s focus back to the rattlesnakes and other venomous species so favored by the famous snakeman. Supporting institutions that study and breed endangered snakes is a wonderful and enjoyable means of assuring their survival. 

Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation is soliciting articles, observations, stories, poems and other input from non-herpetologists interested in snake conservation.  Please visit the PARC website for further information on participating in their worthwhile efforts.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook.  Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Protected Status of Snakes in the USA

Global Snake Decline  

Great Basin Rattlesnake Conservation

Red Phase Nerodia clarkii compressicauda image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Bladerunner8u

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Snake Conservation in 2013 – The “Year of the Snake” Begins

The post Snake Conservation in 2013 – The “Year of the Snake” Begins appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

The Goliath Frog Exhibit

I first started working with Goliath Frogs in 1983, at which time we knew little about their natural history or captive needs. Unfortunately, not much has changed since, although field research completed in 1985 (Sabater-Pi, Contribution to the Biology of the Giant Frog, Amphibia-Reptilia, 6(2), 143-153) has filled in some of the blanks. 

The new Goliath Frogs, collected as adults in Cameroon, were shy and high strung, and prone to wild, injury-producing leaps when disturbed. We assumed, therefore, that the zoo’s noisy, crowded Reptile House would not prove an ideal location for their exhibit. Therefore, the curator commandeered an exhibit at the relatively-ignored Aquatic Bird House. Goliath Frogs are habitat specialists, so their exhibit was arranged accordingly, and outfitted with a waterfall and a swift, rocky stream bordered by dense thickets of live plants. In keeping with what little information was available, the water was maintained at a slightly acidic pH.

Captive Behavior

The frogs settled in nicely, but, despite their size, one had to search long and hard to find them. Although wild adults reportedly bask in the sun, ours rarely left the water by day (I wonder now if UVB would have been helpful…please see below).  At night, however, they became quite active – prowling the shoreline and gobbling up Leopard Frogs, their favorite food. I watched them overnight on several occasions, and a bird keeper who lived in the basement of the building (long story!) also kept tabs on their nocturnal wanderings. Unfortunately, breeding behavior was never observed, and this seems to remain true today.

Although field research indicates that invertebrates form 60% of the Goliath Frog’s natural diet, those I cared for favored other frogs over all else.  I suspect that crayfish would have been accepted, but these were not regularly available back then.

Webbed Fingers and Toes

The frogs under my care were dark brown above (some field reports describe adults as greenish-brown, and juveniles as greener in color) and white, tinged with light yellow, below. The feet were fully webbed and tabs of skin fringed the fingers, perhaps to assist in swimming or grasping rocks buffeted by swift currents. 

Natural History

Size

With a snout-vent length of 13 inches and legs of the same length, the Goliath is by far the longest of all frogs. It also vies for the title of heaviest, although African Bullfrogs and Marine Toads occasionally tie or even exceed the Goliath record of approximately 8 pounds. Considering how few have been accurately measured, even bigger individuals may be out there…if they are not eaten! (please see below).

Range and Habitat

The Goliath Frog occupies an 80 to 100 mile-wide range in Cameroon and the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, West Africa (please see map).  Within this tiny area, it is limited to swift, unpolluted, rocky streams bordered by dense equatorial rain forest.

Diet

Field studies are scarce, but indicate that invertebrates comprise at least 60% of the diet.  Freshwater crabs, spiders, scorpions, snails, beetles, millipedes and toads (2 species) have been recorded as prey 

Goliath Frog tadpoles, which are quite “normal” in size, are believed to feed upon a single plant species for much of their lives.

Reproduction

Limited observations indicate that several hundred eggs are attached to aquatic vegetation in quiet pools among the rapids. The tadpole stage lasts for 2.5 to 3 months.

In common with certain other frogs that inhabit noisy, rushing streams, Goliath Frogs produce no mating calls. It is not known whether they communicate via body posture or hand signals, as do Panamanian Golden Frogs.

Behavior

Juveniles spend most of their time in the water, with just the head exposed. Adults sit on rocks within streams, often in direct sunlight, and seem to adjust their exposure to the sun by changing positions. This apparent basking behavior lasts for up to 35 minutes, after which the frogs spend some time in the water before returning to the rocks.

Goliath Frogs hunt along stream borders at night. There is some evidence that adults maintain distinct hunting territories of 60 to 130 square feet.

Conservation

Collection for the food trade is thought to be the greatest threat, especially now that traps have replaced capture by hand. Logging and stream siltation are also concerns. One recent study documented a 50% decline in the adult population over a 15 year period. 

In years past, Goliath Frogs were exported for use in zoos, the pet trade and even frog-jumping contests. I recall seeing an individual that had been entered into one such contest in California. Given their high-strung nature, I was not surprised to note that its snout was bleeding and showed evidence of past injuries.

Goliath Frogs are classified as Endangered by the IUCN. Part of their range lies within Equatorial Guinea’s Monte Alen National Park, but information as to what protection this affords is difficult to come by.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook.  Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Goliath Frog Video and Facts

Goliath Frog Photos and Information

Goliath Frog Field Study

Goliath Frog image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Ryan Somma
Zambian Landscape image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Florence Devouard

Post from: That Reptile Blog


The World’s Largest Frog – Working with the Massive Goliath Frog

The post The World’s Largest Frog – Working with the Massive Goliath Frog appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

Status and Conservation

The Round Island Boa is now confined to Round Island, a tiny speck of habitat where perhaps 500-1,000 individuals survive.  A single wild population and limited number of captives place it at continued risk of extinction.  The new population to be established on another Mauritian island (where the snake formerly lived) is a vital step towards ensuring the species’ survival. 

The Durrell Wildlife Trust became the first institution to breed the Round Island Boa, and maintains most of the captive population.  Founded by legendary conservationist and author Gerard Durrell, this unique organization focuses on critically endangered animals and plants, especially those overshadowed by pandas, rhinos and other “charismatic mega-vertebrates”.  The Trust was the first to breed the Giant Jumping Rat, Lesser Antilles Iguana, Flat-tailed Tortoise and scores of others (please see article below).

The Reintroduction

The island selected for the new Round Island Boa population has been cleared of the introduced black rats, goats and rabbits that previously destroyed the habitat and prey base. The snake’s primary food, the Telfair’s Skink (Leiolopisma telfairi), was released on the island in 2007 and is now well-established. Like other Mauritian reptiles, Telfair’s Skink has been eliminated from much of its range, but survives on Round Island and at the Durrell Wildlife Trust.

The boas to be reintroduced were collected from Round Island, and will first be monitored to assure that they are genetically diverse and disease-free.

Round Island Boa Natural History

Although originally placed in the genus Boa, this species differs so greatly from seemingly-related snakes that is now classified in its own genus and family (Bolyeridae).  The family’s only other member, the Round Island Burrowing Boa (Bolyeria multacarinata), has not been seen since 1975 and is presumed extinct.

The Round Island Boa is oviparous, and changes in color from bright orange to grayish-brown as it matures.  There are some indications that females remain with their eggs for a time.  Unique scalation lends the alternative common name of Keel-scaled Boa.  Juveniles and some adults (especially females) appear to be largely arboreal.

The Round Island Boa’s preferred habitat – forest and palm-dotted savannah – has been largely reduced to brushy scrub by agricultural development, introduced rabbits and goats.  Rat predation on young snakes and skinks has contributed to the species’ drastic decline. 

What’s Next?

The reintroduced population will be closely monitored by Durrell Wildlife Trust staffers and other conservation organizations. In addition to establishing a new population, the project may serve as a template for future herp recovery efforts.  I’ll post updates as they become available.

There are many other success stories, as well as failures.  Please post your own thoughts and examples below so that I can share them with readers and researchers.  Thanks.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook.  Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Round Island Boa photos and information

How Mauritius Pink Pigeons Saved Me From Life as a Lawyer

The Durrell Wildlife Trust

Telfair’s Skink Natural History

Casarea dussumieri image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Jjargoud

Phelsuma ornata image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Mark J. Harmon

Valley in Mauritius image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by line1

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Round Island Boa Reintroduction – Back in Wild after a 150-Year Absence

The post Round Island Boa Reintroduction – Back in Wild after a 150-Year Absence appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

State Law

Animal abuse is a crime every state in the USA, and most aspects of the problem are controlled by state law. This results in a confusing array of widely differing statutes and enforcement policies. Details, such as what constitutes abuse and how the laws are actually enforced, vary from state to state. Until recently (July, 2012), for example, an Indiana “festival” that allowed participants to twist off the heads of turtles for public amusement was held not to violate state law (please see below)!  In some states, live Tiger Salamander larvae are legally used as fish bait (please see this article), while in others they are protected as an endangered species.

Adding to the confusion is the fact that various situations, such as pet store neglect or abused private pets, may be handled by different agencies within the same state. Fortunately, the ASPCA provides a list of enforcement agencies for in all 50 states.

Federal Law

The federal Animal Welfare Act governs the operation of breeding facilities, zoos, circuses and research labs. You can learn more about this law, and how to report violations, here.

Common Reptile/Amphibian Abuse Situations

Many people cannot recognize reptile and amphibian abuse. The input of experienced hobbyists is, therefore, very important. Following are some of the most common abuse scenarios that I’ve encountered:

Inappropriate housing of hatchling Red-Eared Sliders: The sale of turtles under 4 inches in length is illegal in all states (please see this article). However, enforcement is spotty because these turtles are usually sold by street vendors rather than through pet stores. Since the turtles are inexpensive, they are treated more as disposable items than live animals, and very little effort is expended on their care.

Food market turtles and frogs: The USDA classifies live food market turtles and frogs as “seafood”, and permits them to be displayed on ice and held in abominable conditions.  During my years with the Bronx Zoo, I often took charge of confiscated food trade turtles and American Bullfrogs.  The animals invariably suffered from a variety of diseases and injuries, and few survived.

Years ago, I spearheaded a study that investigated mercury levels in Florida Soft-shelled Turtles in NYC markets. Although high levels of mercury and atrocious conditions were documented, I was unable to make any changes in the applicable laws.

Hoarders and Rescuers: These usually well-meaning folks sometimes become over-extended, and wind up doing more harm than good. I’ve assisted the police in some unbelievable situations, including the confiscation of 5 adult Spectacled Caimans from a NYC apartment, and the investigation of several Iguana-filled Manhattan apartments. Animals removed from such situations are often in poor health and difficult to re-home.

Pet Stores and Animal Displays

Conditions are generally improving in these areas, but much work remains to be done. Under-funded “reptile zoos” still pop up from time to time.  I helped to investigate several of these, and in most cases state/local authorities acted quickly. However, even where professional herpetologists stand ready to testify, red tape has sometimes resulted in numerous animal deaths.

“Entertainment”

Thankfully, the Indiana “Snapperfest” mentioned earlier is not a common scenario, and “rattlesnake roundups” are fading fast. But the fact that large crowds will cheer as grown men pull the heads from living turtles (as in Indiana) is, to me, very scary. Upon watching a video of this horror show, I was shocked to see that the audience contained numerous young children accompanied by their parents!

Fortunately, the New York Turtle and Tortoise Society and other groups became involved, and the spectacle has now been abolished. Please see this article.

Other Sources of Information

Animal shelter staffers can often answer questions concerning the most effective means of reporting animals in distress. The ASPCA’s Nationwide Animal Shelter Directory is a valuable resource.

Police departments are required to assist in emergencies involving animals if people are at risk (dial 911) and can also advise you on how to proceed in non-emergency situations.

Personal Safety

In addition to helping animals, reporting animal cruelty can save human lives. Studies show that animal abusers are likely to engage in violent crimes against people as well.  For this reason, however, police officers advise those witnessing animal abuse not to take action themselves, but rather to dial “911”.

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

Please post any questions you may have concerning abuse or related topics. I’ll do my best to guide you to local assistance.

By becoming involved with a responsible reptile/amphibian club or society, you’ll stay informed and be better equipped to influence local policies.  Please check out the website of my favorite such organization, the New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, for examples of how much can be accomplished by dedicated, well-informed people.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook.  Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Frog Leg Trade

Reptile Abuse (Incidents, Reports)

Red Eared Slider hatchling info

“Snapperfest” (turtle killing “festival”)

PetAbuse.com: links to useful resources

Live turtles in Asian market image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Vmenkhov
Live baby turtles in Asian market image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Krotz

Post from: That Reptile Blog


Reptile and Amphibian Abuse – Examples, Laws and How You Can Help

The post Reptile and Amphibian Abuse – Examples, Laws and How You Can Help appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

I’ve worked with several animals given the dubious honor of “World’s Rarest”, including the Batagur Turtle and Jamaican Iguana, and was heartened to see that zoos and private individuals are still contributing mightily to their protection.  However, many of listed species are poorly-studied, and draw few supporters.  Unfortunately, two such creatures that I’ve cared for in the past – the Chittenango Ovate Amber Snail and the Tanzanian Spray Toad – are now extinct in the wild.

Worthless or Priceless?

Eight thousand IUCN-based biologists contributed to the report. I was pleased to see that the animals, plants and fungi highlighted provide no readily apparent benefits to humankind.  While economic value is an important factor that often spurs action, I think we also need to drive home the point that each species has intrinsic worth, and that all extinctions negatively affect us in some way.

The Pet Trade

Some of the creatures designated as “Most Threatened”, such as the Ploughshare Tortoise, have been both harmed by over-collection and helped by hobbyists who focus on captive reproduction.  The Luristan Newt and Peacock Paradise Spider, largely ignored early-on by zoos, are now regularly bred in private collections. 

The Threats

While well-known problems such as habitat loss, over-collection, and introduced species continue to plague wildlife, some rarities are threatened for other reasons.  

Bullock’s False Toad, for example, is disappearing due to stream alterations undertaken to provide power.  Despite extensive surveys, this Chilean amphibian has been seen only twice since 1992.  Invasive plants have destroyed the Table Mountain Ghost Frog’s habitat, declining water quality has nearly wiped out the Singapore Freshwater Crab and coral reef destruction threatens the Leaf Scaled Sea Snake’s future.

Following are details for several of the listed species.  I’ve focused on those with which I have been involved; you can read the full report here.

Ploughshare Tortoise or Angonoka, Astrochelys yniphora

Although international efforts reduced earlier threats from meat hunters and loggers, pet trade collection continues unabated.  The Bronx Zoo received numerous confiscations of Ploughshare Tortoises in the 80’s and 90’s, and there have been recent thefts from Malagasy conservation facilities.  Apparently, only one viable wild population remains.

Tarzan’s Chameleon, Calumma tarzan

The three rainforest patches that comprise this species’ entire range measure only 6.2 square miles in total! This brilliant yellow and green Madagascar endemic is protected, but logging roads are being built near its habitat.

Dusky Gopher Frog, Lithobates sevosus

The only US herp on the list, the Dusky Gopher Frog is limited to 6 square miles of habitat in Mississippi.  Hopefully, some of what we learned about the captive breeding of close relatives will benefit this frog before its time runs out.

Luristan Newt, Neurergus kaiseri

Impressed by the efforts of several dedicated amphibian enthusiasts, I and others tried, without success, to interest zoos in keeping these amazing animals when they first appeared in the USA.  Brilliantly clad in black, orange and white, Luristan Newts were an immediate hit among private hobbyists, and captive breeding followed. But they face severe threats in the wild. Native to only 3 streams in Iran, dams, introduced fish, droughts, and illegal collection may doom the remaining free-living individuals.

Red River Giant Soft-shelled Turtle, Rafetus swinhoei

This species may be down to four individuals, two of which reside in China’s Suzhou Zoo. Legendary herpetologist Peter Pritchard has long been involved in Giant Softshell conservation, and I’ve had the good fortune of speaking with him on the subject. I learned that the outlook is grim – efforts to breed the captive pair, initiated in 2008, have not yet been successful. Sadly, despite recent international attention given this turtle’s plight, a wild individual captured in 2010 would up in the food trade. 

The Giant Softshell may top 250 pounds in weight, but, being highly aquatic, is difficult to survey; some hope remains (in me, at any rate!) that undiscovered specimens still inhabit the extensive natural range.

Other Listed Species

The “World’s Rarest” are a fantastic group of creatures, many of which are unknown even to experts.  Several, such as the Hula Painted Frog, were believed extinct until recently rediscovered.  From the Geometric Tortoise to the Rio Pescado Stubfoot Toad, all hold secrets, and all face a dark future.  Please see the article below for detailed information on each.

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

I can attest, from personal experience, that “last-ditch” efforts have averted extinctions. While the Ovate Snails and Spray Toads mentioned earlier now survive only in captivity, others, including the Arabian Oryx and Black-Footed Ferret, have been reintroduced to the wild.  The current valiant efforts of zoos and private hobbyists to rescue Southeast Asia’s turtles (please see this article) are responsible for keeping several species from disappearing forever. 

So don’t lose hope. Support responsible conservation programs in any way you can – please post here if you would like specific information on how to do this – and don’t forget to list those species that concern you most; after all, far more than 100 are in dire need of out help.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook.  Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,

 Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Priceless or Worthless? (IUCN report text and photos)

New Standard to Measure Species’ Status

Bullock’s False Toad Conservation

Red River Giant Soft-shelled Turtle

 
Tarzan’s Chameleon image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Sebastian Gehring
Poecilotheria metallica image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by MLursus
Neurergus kaiseri image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Dr. Richard Bartlett

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Reptiles, Amphibians, Tarantulas among “World’s 100 Rarest Species”

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Parasites and Insecticides: a Confusing Scenario

As the reality of worldwide amphibian declines became apparent, herpetologists and private citizens began noticing increasing numbers of deformed and dead frogs. In 1995, school children in Minnesota made headlines when they found dozens of deformed frogs in a local pond. Since several chemicals are known to cause growth abnormalities, researchers began focusing on pollutants. At the Bronx Zoo, I worked with a veterinarian who studied African Clawed Frogs, and was amazed to see ovaries develop in males that had been exposed to Atrazine (a common insecticide). 

But pollutants turned out not to be the whole story…a parasite also played a role. The creature involved needs to infect both a frog and a wading bird in order to complete its life cycle. Amazingly, it lives within a tadpole for a time and “re-programs” the development of the hind legs as metamorphosis occurs. The newly-transformed frog develops extra rear legs and, unable to jump very well, is likely to be caught by a heron – just as the parasite “intended”! 

Actually, many parasites cause incredible changes in their hosts’ behaviors – one “directs” an ant to climb into the canopy and raise its now red-colored abdomen skyward in imitation of a tasty berry (so that it is eaten by the next essential host, a bird), another causes the host spider to build a silken shelter before dying, so that the parasite has a safe place in which to emerge, and so on…

Are Pathogens Changing?

Amphibians evolved some 300-400 million years ago, long before the dinosaurs, and they’ve likely been battling parasites similar to those described above for much of that time. The same can be said of other fungi, bacteria and viruses that attack them. 

Yet it seems that certain pathogens and diseases, despite being around for centuries, are now causing unprecedented amphibian population declines and extinctions.  For example, Chytrid fungus, first identified as a serious threat in 1999, may be responsible for the disappearance of nearly 200 species. Although termed an “emerging disease”, it was likely present all along, but is now spreading more rapidly, and having a more devastating effect on its victims. This trend is seen among frogs worldwide (salamanders and caecilians are not as well-studied) – many pathogens are more common now than in years past, are spreading to new habitats, and are causing unusually high mortality rates.

The Role of Stress

According to the article referenced above, multiple stresses may be weakening amphibian immune systems, rendering them unable to battle common illnesses.  We see this in captivity all the time – animals that are assailed by inappropriate temperatures, hostile tank-mates or poor diets often fall victim to parasites and diseases that would have been handled by the immune system had conditions been ideal.  

One stress factor can depress the immune system (in zoos, birds moved to a new exhibit often succumb to Aspergillosus infections, an ever-present fungus that typically causes no problems).  Currently, many amphibians are exposed to pollution, climate change, introduced species, habitat fragmentation and other stressors simultaneously. Small wonder that at least 2,500 species are believed to be in decline.

Permeable skins that allow for the passage of harmful chemicals, and the typical need for two distinct habitats, predispose amphibians to difficulties when environmental changes occur. However, there is evidence that similar processes are at work among other groups as well (please see this article on snake declines). 

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

Please be on the alert for deformed amphibians and signs of population declines, and post your observations here.  I can help you to get the information to organizations that can put it to good use.  Also, a colleague of mine is now involved in Amphibian Ark, a fine conservation group which can provide guidance if need be.

Please see the articles linked below for information on IUCN surveys and other efforts that utilize volunteers.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook.  Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Frog Leg Trade Helps Spread Amphibian Disease  

Amphibian Study Seeks Volunteers  

Deformed Frogs Found in Minnesota

Bacteria may offer Chytrid Immunity

 Global Amphibian Declines (excellent overview)

Chytridiomycosis image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Forest Brem

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Amphibian Declines – Pollution Worsens Disease and Parasite Attacks

The post Amphibian Declines – Pollution Worsens Disease and Parasite Attacks appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

Note: Box Turtle populations have declined drastically. In addition to habitat loss and road-kill, many were exported to foreign pet markets when European tortoises were protected by law.  Please purchase only captive-bred animals.

Natural History

Four Box Turtle species – the Eastern, Spotted, Ornate and Coahuilan – range from southern Canada through most of the USA and into Mexico.  Ten uniquely-colored subspecies, including the Florida, Gulf Coast and Yucatan Box Turtles, are also recognized. 

Box Turtles frequent woodlands, marshes, fields, agricultural land, and many other habitats.  Some, such as the Eastern Box Turtle (T. carolina), are largely terrestrial, while Three-Toed Box Turtles (T. carolina triunguis) and others split their time between land and shallow water.  The Coahuilan Box Turtle (T. coahuila), the group’s only truly aquatic member, is found only in Mexico’s Cuatro Cienegas Basin.  Several of my colleagues at the Bronx Zoo studied this species in the wild, and I had the good fortune to work with a breeding group for many years; please look for my future article on this most unique turtle.

Although certain other turtles posses shell hinges that allow the plastron (lower shell) to be drawn up (“like a box”), in no group is this ability so well developed as the American Box Turtles (please see photo).

Behavior

When properly accommodated, Box Turtles take very well to captivity and quickly learn to “beg’ for food. They seem to exhibit a degree of curiosity and problem-solving abilities not evident in others. That being said, there are exceptions…

The World’s most Aggressive Box Turtle

Years ago a co-worker of mine found an adult Eastern Box Turtle abandoned at the back door of the Bronx Zoo’s Reptile House as he left for the day.  Needing to leave right away, he secured the turtle in a storage locker.  Next day, the typical hectic life of a zookeeper kicked in, and the turtle was forgotten for several days. 

My co-worker then liberated the turtle and placed it on a table for examination.  When he lowered his head to table level to get a better look, it ran over and clamped down on his nose, leaving a long-lasting scar.  Our vets checked the animal and found him none-the-worse (physically!) for his experience.  But thereafter, he attacked whoever came near, even going so far as to follow people, clamber onto their shoes, and bite down on pants or legs!  Eventually he found a home at a small zoo where he proved more amenable to female turtle company and sired quite a few offspring! 

Housing

Setting up the Terrarium

Box Turtles are quite active and need spacious enclosures.  Glass aquariums are unsuitable, except, perhaps, for hatchlings. 

Adults do best in enclosures that have been constructed with their needs in mind; outdoor maintenance is ideal when weather permits.  The Table Top Cage described on the Tortoise Trust website is very useful.   Plastic-bottomed rabbit cages and cattle troughs can also be modified as turtle homes. 

Shelters are important to the well-being of pet turtles.  Suitable hiding spots include deep substrates and “turtle huts”

Box Turtles need a water bowl large enough for soaking.  

Substrate

The ideal substrate is a mix of slightly-moist cypress or other wood chips and sphagnum moss.  I like to include fallen leaves as well. The substrate should be of a depth that allows the turtle to bury itself, as this is their typical means of hiding in the wild.
Light
Box Turtles need daily exposure to UVB light.  Natural sunlight is best, but be aware that UVB rays do not penetrate glass or plastic, and that fatal overheating can occur quickly.

Your turtle should be able to bask within 6-12 inches of a high-output UVB florescent bulb, such as the Zoo Med 10.0.   Mercury vapor and halogen bulbs broadcast UVB over greater distances, and emit beneficial UVA radiation as well.  Be sure to provide shaded areas as well 
Heat
Temperatures should range from 70-80 F, with a basking site of 85-88 F.  Incandescent bulbs may be used by day; ceramic heaters or red/black reptile “night bulbs” are useful after dark.

Provide your turtle with the largest home possible, so that a thermal gradient (areas of different temperatures) can be established.  Thermal gradients, critical to good health, allow turtles to regulate their body temperature by moving between hot and cool areas.  In glass aquariums and other small or poorly-ventilated enclosures, the entire area soon takes on the basking site temperature. 
Humidity
Box Turtles, even those native dry habitats, require access to humid substrates.  Low humidity has been linked to eye and ear infections and kidney disease.  The substrate should be misted at least twice daily; a dry basking area must also be available. 

Companions

Females and youngsters often co-exist, but must be watched as dominant individuals may prevent others from feeding.  Males fight viciously, and usually harass females with near-constant mating attempts.

Feeding

Note: Certain species have unique dietary preferences; Coahuilan Box Turtles, for example, are more carnivorous than most.  Please post questions concerning those you keep.

Animal Foods

Young Box Turtles are largely carnivorous.  As they mature, increasing amounts of plant material is added to the diet.  Youngsters should be fed a diet comprised largely of whole animals. Earthworms, snails and slugs, which can be collected from pesticide-free areas, are important food items.  Tossing a handful of leaf litter into the terrarium will elicit hunting behaviors and keep your lets well-occupied. Food market and canned snails are excellent alternatives.  

Other nutritious foods include pre-killed pink mice, super mealworms, roaches, sow bugs, waxworms, grasshoppers, grubs, crickets and canned invertebrates marketed for pet reptiles. 

Low fat dog food, canned box turtle diets or moistened Reptomin Food Sticks should be mixed into most meals. Try some of the foods mentioned below as well.

Plant Foods

Approximately 50% of the diet for adults should be as described above. The balance should be comprised of salads containing chopped various berries, kale, dandelion, yams, apples, pears, squash, mushrooms, carrots and other produce.

Supplements

The calcium requirements of Box Turtles are quite high.  All food should be powdered with Tetra ReptoCal, Zoo Med ReptiCalcium or a similar product; a cuttlebone may also be left in the cage.  Vitamin/mineral supplements (i.e. Reptivite with D3) should be used 2-3 times weekly. 

Feeding Tips

Adults can be fed 5-7 times weekly, juveniles daily. Box Turtles often become “spoiled”, and consume 1-2 food items to the exclusion of others. Strawberry jelly can be used to entice your turtles to accept a wider variety of foods.  Please see this article for further information and tips.

What’s Next, and What Can I Do?

Box Turtles can be quite hardy pets, but only if their exacting requirements are met. Please post any questions you may have below and I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

If you are concerned about turtle conservation, please consider joining a turtle interest group. The NY Turtle and Tortoise Society is my favorite.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook.  Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible. 

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Eastern Box Turtle Natural History

Feeding American Box Turtles

Box Turtle Conservation at Davidson College

Information on all Box Turtle Species

Coahuilan Box Turtle image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Postdlf

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American Box Turtles as Pets – Care and Natural History

The post American Box Turtles as Pets – Care and Natural History appeared first on That Reptile Blog.

Conservation through Commercialization

Whatever your personal feelings concerning the consumption of turtles or other animals may be, it is clear that commercial farming can play a role in conservation. The classic US example is the American Alligator.  Legal protections helped, of course, but large scale breeding for the meat and hide trade made a huge difference in that species’ future. 

More recently, the farming of Chinese Softshell Turtles has been advanced as a means to ease the “Asian Turtle Crisis” (please see article below).  Herp hobbyists are now breeding species that were unknown even in zoos in years past, often eliminating the financial incentive for collecting wild specimens in the process (please see Do Reptile Hobbyists Help or Hinder Conservation?).  At least one conservation organization, Wikiri, is now funding research by breeding frogs for the pet trade (please see this article).

Just last month, I had the thrilling opportunity to meet Jack Rudloe, a legendary naturalist whose work has influenced me since childhood.  We spoke about “practical conservation” and, while there are many gray areas, it is clear to me that we cannot operate in a vacuum when the needs of people and animals collide.  If this subject interests you, I highly recommend his Time of the Turtle, which combines fact, observations and a premier conservationist’s thoughts in the style of Ditmars, Pritchard and other greats…a rare treat.  The Sea Brings Forth and his other books are also unequalled…you’ll not be disappointed! 

Turtle Deaths at Cayman Turtle Farm

On July 16, 2012, a leaking underground pipe led to the deaths of 299 3-5 year-old Green Turtles.  As marine turtles can survive for quite some time without water, concerns were raised as to why the problem was not discovered sooner.  Other questions arose as to the propriety of keeping so many individuals in the same tank and regarding the 2 week interval between the incident and public disclosure.

While the Cayman Turtle Farm has an impressive conservation record, its operation has not been problem-free.  An attempt to ship live Green Turtles to Europe was in violation of CITES regulations, and waves from a 2001 hurricane released 75% of the farm’s breeding stock.

In a press release, Cayman Turtle Farms stated that new safeguards, including a backup water supply, have been installed. 

Conservation at Cayman Turtle Farm

Founded in 1968, the Cayman Turtle Farm is the island’s largest land-based tourist attraction. It was originally conceived as a means of producing Green Turtle meat via breeding as opposed to hunting. Over time, a significant research/conservation component was added.  Turtles hatched at the farm mated and nested in 1975, a first time event that has not been accomplished elsewhere.

In 1980, a breeding program was undertaken to further the conservation of the Kemp’s Ridley Turtle. In 1984, the farm became the only facility to have bred this highly endangered reptile in captivity. 

Second generation Green Turtle hatchlings were produced in 1989, and to date 31,000 have been released in conjunction with a “head-starting” effort. This year (2012), a second generation Green Turtle was released and is being monitored via satellite tag. This study, the only one of its kind, may provide important information on the adaptations of captive-bred turtles to the wild.  Given marine turtles’ extensive travels and complex mating strategies, herpetologists are very interested in the outcome. You can follow this turtle, known as “Jerry”, here.  

Note: Your observations and opinions on this somewhat loaded topic would be most appreciated…please post below. 

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook.  Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Further Reading

Tagging Green Turtles in Costa Rica

Time of the Turtle, by Jack Rudloe: (reviews)

The Asian Turtle Crisis

Cayman Turtle Farm Conservation Programs  

News Report and Turtle Farm Statement

 
Green Sea Turtle image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Brocken Inaglory
Green Sea Turtle Farm image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Burtonpe
Green Sea Turtle Feeding image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Lhb1239
Chinese Softshell Turtle Farm image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Clunio

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Green Sea Turtles Die on Farm – Do Meat-Trade Turtles Aid Conservation?

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Dark-Spotted or De Schauensee’s Anaconda, Eunectes deschauenseei

Although described as a distinct species back in 1936, the habits of the Dark-Spotted Anaconda remain unstudied, and it rarely appears in public collections.  While working with Green Anacondas in Venezuela, I tried to arrange a side trip to an area where they were reported to live, but was unable to arrange it.  A review of the acquisition records at the Bronx Zoo, where I worked for many years, revealed that several specimens were believed to be this species, but none were definitely identified as such.  I recently poked around among stored Green Anacondas in the collection of the American Museum of Natural History (courtesy of a colleague there) and hope to return to check on Dark-Spotted Anacondas.  Although widely separated in range from the Yellow Anaconda, many taxonomists hold that the two are closely related.

The Dark-Spotted Anaconda is found in French Guiana and the states of Para and Amapa in northeastern Brazil, and possibly in Suriname.  In common with other anacondas, it is highly aquatic and favors densely-vegetated waters that are difficult to survey.  Therefore, we may not know the exact extent of its range.  Having spent hours trying to find huge Green Anacondas in small pools of water, I can well-imagine that we have more to learn about the range of this elusive reptile.

Females likely top out at approximately 10 feet in length, but surprises could be in store for us.  Like its relatives, the Dark-Spotted Anaconda has a wide appetite…fish, mammals, lizards and wading birds have been reported in its diet.

The IUCN lists this species as “data deficient”, and has not accessed its status.  In areas where seasonally-flooded grasslands form the primary habitat, it is likely threatened by agricultural expansion.  Populations living in swamps may be more secure.

Bolivian or Beni Anaconda, Eunectes beniensis

The Bolivian Anaconda is hunted for its skin and meat, and in some areas is killed as a threat to chickens and other domestic animals. However, as much of its habitat is sparsely populated and difficult to develop, the IUCN lists this species as “least concern”. 

Yellow Anaconda, Eunectes notaeus

The Yellow Anaconda, first described in 1862, ranges from southeastern Bolivia through Paraguay, Uruguay, western Brazil and northeastern Argentina.  At 10-12 feet in average length, with some females approaching 15 feet, it is the largest of the “other anacondas”. Those I’ve handled have been stoutly-built, although not, it seemed, to the same degree of their larger cousin, the Green Anaconda. 

The Yellow Anaconda dwells in the same habitat types as the Green, and like it is also an ambush predator.  Other similarities include the formation of mating balls during the breeding season and a taste for a wide variety of creatures…birds and their eggs, fish, lizards, caiman, capybaras, pacas, brocket deer and a host of other animals have been recorded as prey.

Green Anaconda, Eunectes murinus

I’ve captured and tagged some very large Green Anacondas, and have had the chance to observe mating, deer predation, “human stalking” and scores of other fascinating behaviors. Please see this article and those linked above and below to learn more about this secretive giant 

Titanoboa, the Largest Known Snake

Today’s anacondas are very impressive, but they pale in comparison to Titanoboa cerrejonensis, an extinct look-alike that measured at least 43 feet in length and weighed in at over a ton!  Please see this article for further information. 

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable.  I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. 

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

Green Anaconda Attacks: Notes from the Field

Video: Green Anaconda captures a Capybara

Yellow Anaconda Harvesting and Management in Argentina

Dark-Spotted Anaconda, IUCN Evaluation

Keeping the Green Anaconda

Anaconda Taxonomy

Bolivian Anaconda image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by

Dark Spotted Anaconda image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by C. Schuhmacher
Bolivian Anaconda image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Phillie Casablanca
Yellow Anaconda image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Patrick Jean

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Green Anaconda Relatives – Bolivian, Dark-Spotted and Yellow Anacondas

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