That Reptile Blog » Breeding

Jumping Spiders – Captive Care, New Species and a Surprise (They Watch Videos!)

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 18 Dec 2012 15:04:02 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As a bug-hunting child, I was once startled to come upon a housefly that appeared to be walking on its hind legs. Closer inspection revealed that the unfortunate insect was being carried in a head-up position by a Jumping Spider. I was aware that a variety of these brilliantly-colored little beasts inhabited my Bronx neighborhood, and became interested in how they managed to capture such elusive prey without a web. I began reading and collecting, and was soon fascinated by their keen eyesight and cat-like stalking techniques. They would follow my finger, leap on a feathers pulled by a string, and even display to a mirrors.

I’ve recently learned that biologists are showing videos to Jumping Spiders in an attempt to learn more about their remarkable eyes (which allow for forward, backward, an sideways vision simultaneously), and that a new ant-mimicking Jumping Spider with enormous fangs has turned up in Borneo. I’ll highlight this new information below, and review their natural history and captive care.

A 360 Degree Field of Vision

Animals that are on the menus of other creatures generally have eyes set well back and to the sides of their heads. This arrangement gives mice, deer and others a wide field of vision, with the only bind spots being well to their rear. Predators, such as foxes and hawks, usually have forward-facing eyes, to allow for accurate focusing on prey.

Jumping Spiders, which are both predator and prey, take vision a step further. Research recently published in the journal Royal Society Biology Letters establishes that their eye placement and function allows for a field of vision that is very close to 360 degrees. In effect, Jumping Spiders can see directly behind their bodies, to all sides, and forwards – simultaneously! In lab experiments, the spiders watched both videos and people’s actions with apparent interest (I’m not sure how much they understood, but then again I miss a lot as well!). As most spiders see very little in the way of detail, these advanced abilities are quite surprising.

A Unique Visual System

University of Massachusetts researchers discovered that the retinas of the 2 principal eyes are shaped like boomerangs. These retinas rest in tubes located within the spiders’ heads. By moving these tubes, Jumping Spiders can scan a very wide area about the body. This method of visualizing the environment has not been previously recorded. The principal eyes also see color and detect ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light enhances the spiders’ colors, and plays a role in species recognition and courtship.

Six secondary eyes, located on the sides and rear of the head, detect motion and detail, and also allow the spiders to see objects directly behind the body.

Future Research

Researchers hope that further study will reveal how Jumping Spider brains process visual images, knowledge that may offer insights into the workings of our own eyes and brains.

Natural History

The Jumping Spider family, Salticidae, is the spider world’s largest. Nearly 5,000 species have been described, and many more, no doubt, await discovery. Jumping Spiders may be found in habitats ranging from rainforests and deserts to cities and seashores. I’ve collected several species, each varying in color and size, within NYC.

Hunting Techniques

I’ve always been fascinated by those Jumping Spiders known as “ant mimics”. Their bodies have an insect-like “waist”, and they move about with jerky steps, in imitation of their favorite food. Some even hold the front pair of legs upright, so that they seem to bear antennae! Thus disguised, they are able to approach ants without being attacked. I imagine the spiders also gain some protection from predators by being associated with ant colonies. Please see this article for photos of an amazing, huge-jawed ant mimic recently discovered in Borneo.

In addition to stalking their prey with cat-like stealth, Jumping Spiders utilize other hunting styles. Several have been observed to take detours when moving in on a potential meal. Amazingly, these detours sometimes place the spiders in positions where they cannot see the insect being stalked. Whether “planning” or memory comes into play is not yet known.

Several Jumping Spiders specialize in capturing web-building spiders, inducing their prey into striking range by vibrating webs in imitation of a trapped insect. Some even rappel into webs on silk strands!

Small Legs, Long Leaps

Unlike the large rear legs of grasshoppers and other notable jumpers, those of Jumping Spiders are smaller than the front legs. Rather than relying upon muscle strength, Jumping Spiders utilize hydraulic pressure to facilitate their amazing leaps.

Jumping Spiders in Captivity

I cannot understand why so few spider enthusiasts keep these fascinating creatures. Active by day and extremely bold, Jumping Spiders will reveal much about their lifestyles in small, simple enclosures. In contrast to nearly every other spider, they will follow your movements with interest. The colors and mating dances of the males are thrilling to observe, and captive breeding is possible. Please post questions below if you would like detailed information on their care.

Jumping Spiders are not known to be dangerously toxic, but should not be handled as their venoms are not well-studied. Spiders can be gently nudged into a plastic container via tongs when being collected or transported.

Jumping Spider fans may also be interested in keeping the Giant Crab or Huntsman Spider (Heteropoda venatoria), a species I’ve collected and bred over many years; please see this article for further information.

Please check out my posts on Twitter and Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Round Island Boa Reintroduction – Back in Wild after a 150-Year Absence

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 12 Dec 2012 15:11:36 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Mauritius, an island nation off the coast of southeast Africa, is best known to naturalists as the site of the Dodo Bird’s extinction (Mauritius also is, in a sense, the reason I was hired by the Bronx Zoo and spared life as a lawyer – see article below for the story!). Herp enthusiasts, however, know it as the habitat of several unique reptiles, all of which are now very rare or extinct. But we can delight in some news just released by the Durrell Wildlife Trust - a new population of the Round Island or Keel-scaled Boas, Casarea dussumieri, will soon be established in the wild. This unusual snake disappeared from nearly all of its range in the 1860’s, and its return is the culmination of 40 years’ worth of captive breeding and habitat restoration efforts.

Status and Conservation

The Round Island Boa is now confined to Round Island, a tiny speck of habitat where perhaps 500-1,000 individuals survive. A single wild population and limited number of captives place it at continued risk of extinction. The new population to be established on another Mauritian island (where the snake formerly lived) is a vital step towards ensuring the species’ survival.

The Durrell Wildlife Trust became the first institution to breed the Round Island Boa, and maintains most of the captive population. Founded by legendary conservationist and author Gerard Durrell, this unique organization focuses on critically endangered animals and plants, especially those overshadowed by pandas, rhinos and other “charismatic mega-vertebrates”. The Trust was the first to breed the Giant Jumping Rat, Lesser Antilles Iguana, Flat-tailed Tortoise and scores of others (please see article below).

The Reintroduction

The island selected for the new Round Island Boa population has been cleared of the introduced black rats, goats and rabbits that previously destroyed the habitat and prey base. The snake’s primary food, the Telfair’s Skink (Leiolopisma telfairi), was released on the island in 2007 and is now well-established. Like other Mauritian reptiles, Telfair’s Skink has been eliminated from much of its range, but survives on Round Island and at the Durrell Wildlife Trust.

The boas to be reintroduced were collected from Round Island, and will first be monitored to assure that they are genetically diverse and disease-free.

Round Island Boa Natural History

Although originally placed in the genus Boa, this species differs so greatly from seemingly-related snakes that is now classified in its own genus and family (Bolyeridae). The family’s only other member, the Round Island Burrowing Boa (Bolyeria multacarinata), has not been seen since 1975 and is presumed extinct.

The Round Island Boa is oviparous, and changes in color from bright orange to grayish-brown as it matures. There are some indications that females remain with their eggs for a time. Unique scalation lends the alternative common name of Keel-scaled Boa. Juveniles and some adults (especially females) appear to be largely arboreal.

The Round Island Boa’s preferred habitat – forest and palm-dotted savannah – has been largely reduced to brushy scrub by agricultural development, introduced rabbits and goats. Rat predation on young snakes and skinks has contributed to the species’ drastic decline.

What’s Next?

The reintroduced population will be closely monitored by Durrell Wildlife Trust staffers and other conservation organizations. In addition to establishing a new population, the project may serve as a template for future herp recovery efforts. I’ll post updates as they become available.

There are many other success stories, as well as failures. Please post your own thoughts and examples below so that I can share them with readers and researchers. Thanks.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Reptile and Amphibian Abuse – Examples, Laws and How You Can Help

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 06 Dec 2012 15:21:48 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Unfortunately, animal abuse is a serious and surprisingly common problem in the USA. The applicable laws vary from state to state, and it can be difficult to determine which agency is responsible for enforcement. Regulatory agencies are often under-funded, so many rely upon citizen complaints. It is important, therefore, that concerned people learn how to proceed when they suspect that animal abuse is taking place. This is especially true where reptiles and amphibians are concerned, as they draw less interest than mammals, and mistreatment is difficult to detect by the inexperienced. Please be sure to post your own observations below, and let me know if you need help in deciding how to report a problem.

State Law

Animal abuse is a crime every state in the USA, and most aspects of the problem are controlled by state law. This results in a confusing array of widely differing statutes and enforcement policies. Details, such as what constitutes abuse and how the laws are actually enforced, vary from state to state. Until recently (July, 2012), for example, an Indiana “festival” that allowed participants to twist off the heads of turtles for public amusement was held not to violate state law (please see below)! In some states, live Tiger Salamander larvae are legally used as fish bait (please see this article), while in others they are protected as an endangered species.

Adding to the confusion is the fact that various situations, such as pet store neglect or abused private pets, may be handled by different agencies within the same state. Fortunately, the ASPCA provides a list of enforcement agencies for in all 50 states.

Federal Law

The federal Animal Welfare Act governs the operation of breeding facilities, zoos, circuses and research labs. You can learn more about this law, and how to report violations, here.

Common Reptile/Amphibian Abuse Situations

Many people cannot recognize reptile and amphibian abuse. The input of experienced hobbyists is, therefore, very important. Following are some of the most common abuse scenarios that I’ve encountered:

Inappropriate housing of hatchling Red-Eared Sliders: The sale of turtles under 4 inches in length is illegal in all states (please see this article). However, enforcement is spotty because these turtles are usually sold by street vendors rather than through pet stores. Since the turtles are inexpensive, they are treated more as disposable items than live animals, and very little effort is expended on their care.

Food market turtles and frogs: The USDA classifies live food market turtles and frogs as “seafood”, and permits them to be displayed on ice and held in abominable conditions. During my years with the Bronx Zoo, I often took charge of confiscated food trade turtles and American Bullfrogs. The animals invariably suffered from a variety of diseases and injuries, and few survived.

Years ago, I spearheaded a study that investigated mercury levels in Florida Soft-shelled Turtles in NYC markets. Although high levels of mercury and atrocious conditions were documented, I was unable to make any changes in the applicable laws.

Hoarders and Rescuers: These usually well-meaning folks sometimes become over-extended, and wind up doing more harm than good. I’ve assisted the police in some unbelievable situations, including the confiscation of 5 adult Spectacled Caimans from a NYC apartment, and the investigation of several Iguana-filled Manhattan apartments. Animals removed from such situations are often in poor health and difficult to re-home.

Pet Stores and Animal Displays

Conditions are generally improving in these areas, but much work remains to be done. Under-funded “reptile zoos” still pop up from time to time. I helped to investigate several of these, and in most cases state/local authorities acted quickly. However, even where professional herpetologists stand ready to testify, red tape has sometimes resulted in numerous animal deaths.

“Entertainment”

Thankfully, the Indiana “Snapperfest” mentioned earlier is not a common scenario, and “rattlesnake roundups” are fading fast. But the fact that large crowds will cheer as grown men pull the heads from living turtles (as in Indiana) is, to me, very scary. Upon watching a video of this horror show, I was shocked to see that the audience contained numerous young children accompanied by their parents!

Fortunately, the New York Turtle and Tortoise Society and other groups became involved, and the spectacle has now been abolished. Please see this article.

Other Sources of Information

Animal shelter staffers can often answer questions concerning the most effective means of reporting animals in distress. The ASPCA’s Nationwide Animal Shelter Directory is a valuable resource.

Police departments are required to assist in emergencies involving animals if people are at risk (dial 911) and can also advise you on how to proceed in non-emergency situations.

Personal Safety

In addition to helping animals, reporting animal cruelty can save human lives. Studies show that animal abusers are likely to engage in violent crimes against people as well. For this reason, however, police officers advise those witnessing animal abuse not to take action themselves, but rather to dial “911”.

What’s Next…What Can I Do?

Please post any questions you may have concerning abuse or related topics. I’ll do my best to guide you to local assistance.

By becoming involved with a responsible reptile/amphibian club or society, you’ll stay informed and be better equipped to influence local policies. Please check out the website of my favorite such organization, the New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, for examples of how much can be accomplished by dedicated, well-informed people.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Green Sea Turtles Die on Farm – Do Meat-Trade Turtles Aid Conservation?

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 24 Sep 2012 14:34:29 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. An accident that caused the deaths of 299 endangered Green Turtles at the Cayman Turtle Farm has raised concerns about the facility’s operation. The incident brought other issues to my mind as well. I was first inspired by the legendary herpetologist Archie Carr, and have since been involved in several field studies of Green, Leatherback and other marine turtles (please see article below). I see the value in organizations such as Cayman Turtle Farm, which raises turtles for the food market while also racking up important “firsts” in breeding and research. However, many disagree with me. What’s your opinion? Any comments you may wish to post below would be much appreciated.

Conservation through Commercialization

Whatever your personal feelings concerning the consumption of turtles or other animals may be, it is clear that commercial farming can play a role in conservation. The classic US example is the American Alligator. Legal protections helped, of course, but large scale breeding for the meat and hide trade made a huge difference in that species’ future.

More recently, the farming of Chinese Softshell Turtles has been advanced as a means to ease the “Asian Turtle Crisis” (please see article below). Herp hobbyists are now breeding species that were unknown even in zoos in years past, often eliminating the financial incentive for collecting wild specimens in the process (please see Do Reptile Hobbyists Help or Hinder Conservation?). At least one conservation organization, Wikiri, is now funding research by breeding frogs for the pet trade (please see this article).

Just last month, I had the thrilling opportunity to meet Jack Rudloe, a legendary naturalist whose work has influenced me since childhood. We spoke about “practical conservation” and, while there are many gray areas, it is clear to me that we cannot operate in a vacuum when the needs of people and animals collide. If this subject interests you, I highly recommend his Time of the Turtle, which combines fact, observations and a premier conservationist’s thoughts in the style of Ditmars, Pritchard and other greats…a rare treat. The Sea Brings Forth and his other books are also unequalled…you’ll not be disappointed!

Turtle Deaths at Cayman Turtle Farm

On July 16, 2012, a leaking underground pipe led to the deaths of 299 3-5 year-old Green Turtles. As marine turtles can survive for quite some time without water, concerns were raised as to why the problem was not discovered sooner. Other questions arose as to the propriety of keeping so many individuals in the same tank and regarding the 2 week interval between the incident and public disclosure.

While the Cayman Turtle Farm has an impressive conservation record, its operation has not been problem-free. An attempt to ship live Green Turtles to Europe was in violation of CITES regulations, and waves from a 2001 hurricane released 75% of the farm’s breeding stock.

In a press release, Cayman Turtle Farms stated that new safeguards, including a backup water supply, have been installed.

Conservation at Cayman Turtle Farm

Founded in 1968, the Cayman Turtle Farm is the island’s largest land-based tourist attraction. It was originally conceived as a means of producing Green Turtle meat via breeding as opposed to hunting. Over time, a significant research/conservation component was added. Turtles hatched at the farm mated and nested in 1975, a first time event that has not been accomplished elsewhere.

In 1980, a breeding program was undertaken to further the conservation of the Kemp’s Ridley Turtle. In 1984, the farm became the only facility to have bred this highly endangered reptile in captivity.

Second generation Green Turtle hatchlings were produced in 1989, and to date 31,000 have been released in conjunction with a “head-starting” effort. This year (2012), a second generation Green Turtle was released and is being monitored via satellite tag. This study, the only one of its kind, may provide important information on the adaptations of captive-bred turtles to the wild. Given marine turtles’ extensive travels and complex mating strategies, herpetologists are very interested in the outcome. You can follow this turtle, known as “Jerry”, here.

Note: Your observations and opinions on this somewhat loaded topic would be most appreciated…please post below.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Argentine/Ornate Horned Frog Care: the “Pac Man Frog” and its Relatives

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 25 Jul 2012 16:58:44 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. The Argentine or Ornate Horned Frog (Ceratophrys ornata) may be the world’s most popular amphibian pet. Dubbed the “Pac Man Frog” due to a resemblance to the large-mouthed video game character, it is beautifully colored and “charmingly” pugnacious in disposition. Despite their size (females may be compared to salad bowls; males are much smaller), Horned Frogs require relatively little space and are an ideal choice for those seeking an interesting pet that may live to age 20 or more. Albinos and other unique color morphs, as well as hybrids between related species, are available.

Natural History

Argentine Horned Frogs inhabit savannas (grasslands) in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. In some regions, they become dormant during cool, dry periods.

Seven related species have been described. Of these, the Cranwell’s or Chaco Horned Frog (Ceratophrys cranwelli) is most frequently seen in the pet trade. The following information can be applied to its care. The Surinam Horned Frog (C. cornuta) bears the longest “horns” of all (please see photo).

Horned Frog tadpoles communicate with one another by sound…the only vertebrate larvae known to do so. The calls may prevent the carnivorous tadpoles from preying upon relatives…at least until other food runs out! (please see video below).

Hunting Behavior and Diet

Due to their size and aggressive personalities, Horned Frogs, known locally as Escuerzos, are the subject of many tales within their native range. They are, for example, erroneously thought to be venomous and to attack livestock. They are, however, formidable predators. Studies indicate that other frogs comprise up to 80% of the diet, with invertebrates, birds, snakes and rodents making up the balance.

They are assisted in hunting by huge mouths, powerful jaws and bony “teeth”, known as odontoid structures, that project from the lower jaw. Although they bite readily in self defense, these stout beasts are rather clumsy and may safely be grasped behind the front legs (more on handling below).

Housing

Setting up the Terrarium

The ultimate “sit and wait” predator, a Horned Frog rarely moves unless necessary. A 15-20 gallon tank will accommodate an adult.

Horned Frogs produce copious waste products, and ammonia poisoning is the most common cause of pet death. Fortunately, they are quite comfortable in simple, easy-to-clean terrariums. Ease of maintenance is the main consideration when setting up a Horned Frog habitat.

A bare-bottomed aquarium, tilted on one side to create a small water section, is ideal, as it can easily be dumped and cleaned. Alternatively, a water bowl can be utilized.

Horned Frogs do not require plants or other furnishings, and are unusual among frogs in that they are quite content without a hiding spot.

Substrate

Horned Frogs swallow whatever enters their huge mouths along with meals, and are prone to intestinal blockages from gravel and other substrates. Bare-bottomed terrariums or washable cage liners are best. I’ve used Sphagnum moss with success, but please see cautions under “Feeding”.

Light, Heat and Humidity

Horned Frogs do not require UVB light, and humidity is not a concern if they have access to a water bowl.

A temperature range of 72-85 F suits them well. An incandescent bulb or ceramic heater can be used to warm the terrarium, but be careful of their drying effects.

Companions

Juveniles have insatiable appetites and invariably try to swallow even like-sized tank-mates. They are best housed singly. Same-sized adults may co-exist, but should be fed separately as bites can occur at feeding time.

Feeding

Given the high proportion of vertebrates in their natural diet, it follows that Horned Frogs require a great deal of calcium. Whole fishes and pink mice are ideal calcium sources; crickets alone, even if powdered with supplements, are not sufficient.

Horned Frogs do well on relatively simple fare…fish, earthworms and crickets can make up most of their diet. Minnows, shiners or guppies should be offered, with pink mice should be used less often (once each 7-10 days). While some success has been had by feeding adult mice and even small rats to Horned Frogs, over-use of rodents may lead to liver problems and fur impactions (please see this article).

Crayfishes, roaches, waxworms, butterworms, silkworms and other commercially-available species should also be provided regularly. Where practical, feeders should themselves be provided a nutritious diet before being given to your pets (please see these articles on cricket and earthworm care) To increase dietary variety, try wiggling canned grasshoppers, snails and silkworms in front of your frog (using tongs, not your fingers!).

Food (other than pinkies and fish) should be powdered with Zoo Med ReptiCalcium plus D3 or a similar product. Vitamin/mineral supplements such as Reptivite should be used 2-3 times weekly.

Youngsters do best when fed daily or every-other-day. Adults require only 1-2 feedings per week, or can be provided smaller, more frequent meals.

If you use moss or other substrates, food is best offered via tongs or in a separate, bare-bottomed enclosure to limit substrate ingestion.

Water

Water should be changed daily and treated with a chlorine/chloramine remover. Ammonia, released with waste products, is colorless and odorless at low concentrations. It is rapidly absorbed by frog skin and can prove fatal in short order. Please see this article.

Special Considerations

Horned Frogs have powerful jaws equipped with sharp, tooth-like structures, and can inflict painful bites. Even after years in captivity, an instinctive feeding response will cause them to bite fingers moved about within range.

Fortunately, it is a simple matter to safely pick up a Horned Frog by grasping it behind the front legs. Amphibians should be handled only when necessary, and then with wet hands, so that you do not remove the protective mucus from their skin. Wash well after handling any animal.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Pet Trade Frogs Fund Conservation – Wikiri’s Unique Strategy

Frank Indiviglio — Mon, 11 Jun 2012 16:14:40 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Decades of work in zoos and the pet trade has, I believe, given me a unique perspective on the contributions that each can make to amphibian conservation. Over the years, I have been greatly influenced by the work of private keepers who, in some cases, bred rare species long before zoos. Indeed, numerous husbandry techniques used in zoos originated in the private sector. In general, however, the pet trade focuses on pets and conservationists focus on conservation. But Wikiri, an enterprise formed to support amphibian conservation and research, combines the best of both worlds by using captive-bred frogs to promote its goals. In doing so, Wikiri has broken new ground in addressing the amphibian extinction crisis.

Amphibian Declines

The threat currently facing amphibians are unprecedented. At least 200 species have become extinct in recent years, prompting some to compare this “Sixth Extinction Crisis” to the disappearance of the dinosaurs.

Although dedicated biologists continue to battle the spread of Chytrid epidemics and other dangers, traditional conservation measures are not up to the task at hand. Imaginative new approaches, such as the recent cooperative agreements between some zoos and private animal owners (please see article below) are essential.

Breeding Frogs to Fund Conservation

Wikiri is a private company based in Ecuador, a frog diversity hotspot where hundreds of species are at risk of extinction. Its strategy represents, in many ways, a radical departure from traditional thinking on the topic. Wikiri devotes profits from the sale of captive-reared frogs, husbandry products and educational materials to amphibian research and conservation.

Amphibian biologists based at the Centro Jambata for Amphibian Research and Conservation assist the organization in both captive care and field research. As a result, Wikiri’s efforts incorporate the latest information available, and are conducted in accordance with local and international laws. The endorsement of Amphibian Ark a major US conservation organization, bears witness to the quality of Wikiri’s work.

Husbandry Advances and Captive-Bred Frogs

Wikiri has made significant advances in the breeding of endangered frogs, the maintenance of Chytrid-free environments and the formulation of healthful diets. Especially impressive is the focus on eliminating metabolic bone disease in captive amphibians.

Some very interesting species are bred in an environmentally friendly manner and offered for sale. Included among these are the Little Devil Frog, Dendrobates (Oophaga) sylvaticus, the Pacific Horned Frog, Ceratophrys stoltmanni, and the Andean Marsupial Frog, Gastrotheca riobambae.

Other species destined for re-introduction programs are also being produced at Wikiri. Indoor facilities are used, but I’m especially interested in the organization’s reliance upon “enriched natural habitats” as frog-rearing sites. Complete details have yet to be published, but it seems that frogs are being raised outdoors, on tracts of previously degraded land. Improving the habitat for frogs and their prey shows great promise.

Field Research and Conservation

Wikiri is actively working at several sites in Ecuador, and supporting the work of biologists in others. Chief among these is the Otokiki Tropical Rainforest Reserve, north of the capital city of Quito. Lumbering, agriculture and gold mining have greatly affected surrounding areas, and researchers are at risk from foreign paramilitary forces and drug traffickers. Never-the-less, new strides in amphibian research and conservation are being taken, funded in part by the sale of captive-bred frogs.

Several at-risk frog species are being actively managed to a degree rarely seen in field situations. Included among these are the Gliding Leaf Frog, Agalychnis spurrelli, the Splendid Treefrog, Cruziohyla calcarifer (an astonishingly-beautiful frog), the Imbabura Treefrog, Hypsiboas picturatus and Little Devil Frog, Dendrobates (Oophaga) sylvaticus. Genetic monitoring techniques are being developed.

Towards a Pet Trade-Conservation Coalition

My involvement in conservation projects that have included both private keepers and professional herpetologists has convinced me that the future of many species lies in cooperative ventures. Zoos do not have the space and funds to do all that is required; please see Herp Hobbyists: Hindering or Helping Conservation? for some examples. Please write in with your own ideas and experiences…many species face a bleak future, and time is short!

Frogs produced by Wikiri will, initially, likely be more expensive than those from other sources. However, profits will be plowed back into conservation and also into research that will benefit pet keepers (i.e. the development of techniques to address Chytrid and MBD). In addition, the high death rates and other problems associated with legal and illegal collection will be eliminated. Please support the work of this and similar organizations.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Spotted Salamanders Adapt to Salt and other Roadside Toxins

Frank Indiviglio — Wed, 14 Mar 2012 14:23:12 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Early spring is a favorite time for amphibian enthusiasts. Here in the northeastern USA, a spectacular event is unfolding, as Wood Frogs, Tiger and Spotted Salamanders, Spring Peepers and others head en masse for their breeding ponds. I’ve been visiting one pond, first shown to me by herpetologist John Behler, for nearly 30 years. When luck is with me, I can see 3 amphibian species, along with fairy shrimp and other interesting creatures, in a single evening (please see article below).

The small vernal (temporary) pools used by many amphibians are fragile habitats, and quickly spoiled by pollutants; that many are near roads worsens the situation. With their highly-permeable skins, amphibians are especially sensitive to changes in water quality. The recent finding that Spotted Salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) may be evolving defenses against roadside toxins is a rare light at the end of the rather dismal “amphibian conservation” tunnel.

“Salt Water” Salamanders

Yale University researchers report (Science Papers, January, 2012) that toxins carried into ponds via road runoff may be spurring the rapid evolution of defensive adaptations in Spotted Salamanders. Due to road salting, the salinity of roadside ponds can be 70 times that of nearby woodland ponds; a variety of other toxins are also commonly present.

Life in ponds subjected to road runoff is difficult. Salamander larvae living in roadside ponds suffer higher mortality (44% vs. 13%) and an increased number of skeletal defects than do larvae from ponds located away from roads. Also, metamorphosis is delayed. This is particularly troublesome, as vernal pools dry up during the summer – larvae that have not transformed by that time perish.

Only the Strong Survive…

However, those salamanders that have somehow adapted to these harsh conditions seem to gain a survival advantage over those hailing from “natural”, or un-polluted, ponds. Their larvae out-survive other larvae when both are reared together in roadside water.

More surprising than this, however, is the fact that roadside pond larvae also do better than natural pond larvae when reared in unpolluted water. The mechanics are not yet understood, but some survival advantage seems to carry over and remain useful even in non-toxic environments.

This finding is the first known example of a vertebrate evolving in response to roadside toxins. However, only cautious optimism is in order, as each environment and species represents a different scenario…and far more creatures are likely to succumb rather than adapt to pollution.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Newts as Pets – an Introduction to their Care and Feeding

Frank Indiviglio — Tue, 21 Feb 2012 14:45:23 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Although my interests are wide, newts and salamanders have always held a special fascination for me. Beginning in childhood, I sought to keep and breed as many species as possible, and I focused on their husbandry and conservation when I entered the zoo field. In time, I wrote a book summarizing my experiences (please see below). The passage of so many years has not dulled my enthusiasm for these fascinating amphibians, and I can highly recommend them to both beginning and advanced herp keepers.

The following information may be applied to the care of Japanese Fire-Bellied, Eastern, California, Ribbed and Paddle-Tailed Newts, as well as most others that appear in the pet trade. Please write in for detailed information on individual species.

Newts as Pets

An ability to thrive on commercial pellets distinguishes newts from other amphibians, and endears them to folks who prefer not to handle live insects. All are brilliantly-colored, active by day, and usually live well in groups at average room temperatures. Most become quite tame over time, and will even accept food from your hand. Several California Newts in my collection have lived to age 20, and others seem bent on exceeding that.

Natural History

The term “newt” is usually applied to small, semi-aquatic salamanders in the family Salamandridae. This family contains 80+ species that range throughout North America, Asia and Europe. During the breeding season, males usually develop bright colors, and some, such as the Banded and Crested Newts, sprout fantastic skin crests. The Ribbed Newt may reach a foot in length, but others average 4-6 inches.

Newt larvae develop in water. Upon maturity, they pass through a land dwelling phase (see photo of Eastern Newt above) and then re-enter the water, where they remain for the balance of their lives. However, certain populations depart from the typical lifestyle; Eastern Newts on Long Island, NY, for example, skip the land stage.

Newts offered in the pet trade are usually in their adult, semi-aquatic stage.

Behavior

Amphibians are not known for being especially active, but newts are always nosing about for food, exploring, and interacting with tank-mates. They see well and may swim to the aquarium’s side when you enter the room, in anticipation of a meal.

Handle newts only when necessary, and with wet hands so that the skin’s protective mucus covering is not removed.

Housing

Setting up the Habitat

Newts are well-adapted to life in the water, but do need a place to haul out and rest. The water in their aquarium can be deep, provided that egress is simple…cork bark, turtle platforms, and floating live or plastic plants all serve well as resting spots.

Newts are perfectly suited to aquariums stocked with live plants, and spectacular displays can be easily arranged (please see video below). Plants help maintain water quality, and the complex environments they create make life more interesting for both newt and newt-owner.

As newts readily climb glass, a secure screen cover is a must.

Substrate

Smooth, rounded gravel of a size that cannot be swallowed is ideal; rough stones will injure the delicate skin. Bare-bottomed tanks are easily kept clean.

Water Quality

Newts have porous skins that allow for the absorption of harmful chemicals. Careful attention to water quality is essential.

An aquarium pH test kit should always be on hand. Most newts fare well at a pH of 6.5 to 7.5, with 7.0 being ideal.

Ammonia, excreted as a waste product and produced via organic decomposition, is colorless, odorless and extremely lethal to newts; a test kit should be used to monitor its levels.

Chlorine and chloramine must be removed from water used for any amphibian. Liquid preparations are available at pet stores.

Copper may be leached by old water pipes; a test kit should be used if you suspect its presence.

Filtration

Undergravel, sponge, corner, hanging and submersible filters can all be used in newt aquariums. Even with filtration, regular partial water changes are essential in keeping ammonia levels in check.

As newts are not strong swimmers, water outflow from the filter should be mild; plants, rocks and movable outflow attachments can be used to reduce current strength.

Light and Heat

Newts seem not to require UVB light. UVA light is not essential, but may encourage natural behaviors.

Most newts thrive at normal household temperatures, but fare best when kept cool (60-68 F). Temperatures above 75 F may weaken the immune systems of some. Please write in for information on individual species. A winter cooling period of 40-50 F encourages reproduction.

Companions

Although often sold as “additions” to tropical fish aquariums, newts do poorly in warm water and feed too slowly to compete with most fishes. Guppies adjust well to cool water, and their fry will be eagerly consumed by newts; limit the number of adults so as to avoid competition for food. Weather Loaches and Corydoras Catfishes will co-exist, and usually do not interfere with feeding.

Feeding

I rely upon Reptomin Food Sticks as a mainstay for the newts in my collection, and for those under my care in zoos. Freeze-dried shrimp (included in Reptomin Select-a-Food) “gelled insects”, canned snails and frozen fish foods (i.e. mosquito larvae) should be offered regularly.

Live food, while not essential, is relished and will help ensure a balanced diet. Blackworms, bloodworms, earthworms, guppies, and small crickets will be eagerly accepted. Stocking the aquarium with live blackworms will keep your pets active and occupied.

Newt larvae and terrestrial sub-adults will usually accept only live food. Please write in for further information.

Health Considerations

Newt skin glands produce toxins such as Tarichatoxin, which can be fatal if ingested (so don’t eat your pet!). Do not handle newts when you have an open cut, and always wash well afterwards. Toxins transferred to the eyes via fingers have caused temporary blindness.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Breeding Leopard Geckos

Frank Indiviglio — Fri, 03 Feb 2012 13:22:47 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. At some point, lizard keepers usually think about breeding their favorite species. The ever-popular Leopard Gecko, Eublepharis macularius, is an excellent choice for both novice and advanced hobbyists. It is a reliable breeder, yet the conditions that must be established if one is to succeed are similar to those required by many other species; a beneficial learning process is thus ensured. Experienced breeders have developed a huge array of color and pattern morphs, and many enjoy “tinkering” with the genetics of these in order to create unique new gecko strains.

Note: Before attempting to breed any animal, it is important that you arrange homes for the youngsters. Please don’t assume that friends or pet stores will accept them…plan ahead.

Distinguishing the Sexes

Directly above the vent, you will see a series of “V” shaped bumps, the pre-anal pores. These are large and readily-visible in males and less-evident in females. Between the vent and the base of the tail, mature males also exhibit a pair of bulges, beneath which are the hemipenes. Please see the article below for a complete guide to determining your pets’ sex.

Breeding Age

Captive Leopard Geckos usually grow faster than their wild counterparts, and may become sexually mature at age 12 months. Year-old males may be bred, but it is preferable to wait until females are 18-24 months old. An even better indication of breeding readiness (for females) is weight, with 50-60 grams being ideal. A small postal or digital scale can be used to weigh your geckos.

“Almost Spontaneous” Breeding

Wild Leopard Geckos are brought into breeding condition by changes in daily temperatures and light levels. Captives may be stimulated by slight environmental changes, and so may seem to breed spontaneously. Separating and reintroducing a pair may also be effective.

While working at the Bronx Zoo, I even tried the old-timer’s technique of placing monitors and various pythons in a sack (or, rather, separate sacks!) and driving them about on a golf cart for awhile. Amazingly, this sometimes prompts breeding behavior – it seems that the “centers” for adjustment-to-change and reproduction are closely “wired” in some herps!

Conditioning Breeders: Cooling Off Period

However, a more reliable breeding method is to gradually reduce temperature and day-length, preferably in autumn. Feed your geckos well, perhaps increasing dietary variety, during the late summer. Cease feeding 10 days prior to the autumn cool-down, and do not begin dropping temperatures until the animals have defecated. Chilling your geckos before they have passed all wastes will lead to fatalities.

Drop the temperature by 10 F increments over 2 weeks or so, until 50 F is reached. Reduce the day/night cycle to 10 hour day and 14 hours night at the same time. Turning off basking lights and moving the tank may be used in the early stages. For the actual 5 week cooling off period, you’ll need a location that maintains 50 F. Basements and attics are often suitable, but be sure to test the site with a “high-lo thermometer” or other device that records temperatures over a 24 hour period.

Geckos in winter cool-down should be provided a hide box stocked with slightly moist sphagnum moss and a water bowl.

Conditioning Breeders: Warmth and Diet

Warm your lizards up slowly after their 5 week rest. Begin with small meals, progressing to a full diet once they are feeding well. Gravid females need ample calcium reserves, so use ReptoCal or ReptiCalcium on every meal, along with a vitamin/mineral supplement (i.e. Reptivite with D3) 2-3 times weekly. Although not essential, an occasional pink mouse may be offered at this time as well.

Please see this article for further info on providing a balanced diet.

Pairing and Breeding

In order to limit territorial aggression, place your male into the female’s cage. One male may be kept with several females, but trios usually work out best (some breeders keep a single male with up to 10 females…I’m assuming such males are fed very well, and are good at negotiating domestic squabbles!).

Female Leopard Geckos produce 2 eggs, which are often visible beneath the skin as they develop. Remove the male once copulation has been observed, or you notice a weight gain; watch also for overly aggressive males. Copulation is accompanied by biting about the neck, but continual harassment of the female is not normal.

A nest box stocked with moist sand, vermiculite and sphagnum moss should be provided and checked daily. Eggs may also be deposited in the hide box.

Even though we know a great deal about Leopard Gecko breeding, it is important to take notes on behavior, diet, temperature and other details. One never knows where the next unexpected discovery will pop up, and lessons learned while keeping common species are often applicable to endangered lizards…the fate of more and more of these, unfortunately, rests with captive breeding programs.

I’ll cover egg incubation and rearing the young in the future. Until then, please write in with your questions or comments.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Scorpions as Pets – an Overview of their Care

Frank Indiviglio — Thu, 26 Jan 2012 14:18:55 +0000

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. I can’t remember a time when scorpions did not fascinate me, and their lure grows stronger with each new species I encounter. In the past, I’ve written on the care and natural history of Emperor, Flat Rock, Asian Forest and other popular scorpions. Today I’d like to present a general overview. I hope it will help you to decide if a scorpion is the right choice for you and if so, how to get started.

What’s in Store for Scorpion Fans

Among the world’s 2,000+ scorpion species we find an astonishing diversity of fascinating creatures, many of which make hardy pets that adjust well to small enclosures. Several reproduce readily in captivity – lucky scorpion keepers may even be treated to the sight of a female feeding her offspring with crickets! At least 15 species are established in the pet trade, and specialists are working with several others.

Natural History

At 8.5 inches in length,the South African Flat Rock Scorpion, Hadogenes troglodytes, is the largest scorpion regularly seen in captivity. It is exceeded in size only by India’s 10-12 inch-long Giant Forest Scorpion, Heterometrus swammerdami. The largest North American species is the 4 inch Florida Bark Scorpion, Centruroides gracilis. Today’s giants are dwarfed by the ancient Sea Scorpions…some were larger than a person (please see article below)! On the other end of the scale, several in the genus Microtityus are a mere 0.3 inches long.

Most scorpions feed upon a variety of invertebrates, but some specialize in catching land snails and other scorpions. Frogs and other vertebrates are sometimes taken by large individuals. All scorpions produce live young, and some are parthenogenic (reproduce without mating).

Females often carry the young on their backs, and several species feed them with shredded insects. Emperor Scorpions and others exhibit complex social behaviors.

Range and Habitat

Scorpions are found on all continents except Antarctica, and live in deserts, grasslands, caves, rainforests, human dwellings and many other habitats. A surprising number thrive in temperate climates, ranging as far north as Canada; 90+ species inhabit the USA. They are frequent stowaways…I was once called to Kennedy Airport to collect a scorpion that had stung a customs inspector as she checked luggage.

Venom

Scorpion venoms are complex, and are being studied for possible use in the treatment of Lupus, cancer, MS and Rheumatoid Arthritis, and as pain-killers and insecticides.

Most of the 25-30 species capable of delivering dangerous stings are classified within the Genera Centruroides, Androctonus and Tityus.

Scorpions in Captivity

Scorpions are nocturnal, but captives often emerge to feed by day.

Due to peculiarities in molecular structure of the exoskeleton, scorpions fluoresce (“glow”) under UVB light; scientists have not determined what purpose this serves.

Housing

Setting up the Terrarium

Scorpions are best kept in screen-covered aquariums or plastic terrariums. A 10-15 gallon tank is usually adequate for a single adult or pair.

Scorpions need a dark hiding spot. Burrowers such as the Emperor Scorpion will dig their own retreats if provided with deep substrate. Arboreal scorpions will hide behind an upright piece of bark, while South African Rock Scorpions prefer narrow rock crevices. Most also accept inverted flower pots and plastic caves.

Substrate

A mix of coconut husk and peat moss works well for rainforest natives. Burrows will stay intact if you add just enough water so that the substrate sticks together when squeezed.

Arizona Hairy Scorpions and other desert-dwellers can be kept on a sand/gravel mix.

Light

Reptile night bulbs will allow you to watch your pets’ nocturnal activities.

Heat

Most scorpions do well at temperatures of 78-86 F (please write in for individual species details).

Reptile night bulbs or ceramic reptile heaters can be used to warm the terrarium. Heat pads are another option, but these warm the substrate more than the air. Any heating element may dry out the terrarium, so it is important to monitor humidity.

Humidity

Rainforest species require humidity levels in the range of 75-85%, while those from arid habitats do best at 40-50% humidity. Desert-dwelling scorpions spend most of their time in moist burrows, and should be provided a cave stocked with damp sphagnum moss.

Companions

Emperor Scorpions and several others live in social groups that occupy a single burrow system. However, females with young may become aggressive…please write in for further information.

If given enough space, a scorpion colony will establish a complicated maze of burrows.

Feeding

Most scorpions will thrive on a diet comprised of crickets, mealworms and earthworms, but they should also be offered roaches, waxworms, and other invertebrates. Pink mice are not required, even for the largest species.

Once adjusted to their homes, scorpions will often accept canned grasshoppers and snails from feeding tongs. Powdering food once weekly with a reptile vitamin/mineral supplement may be beneficial.

Scorpions obtain water from their prey, but should also be provided with a shallow, easily-exited water bowl.

Health Considerations

All scorpions produce venom and can deliver a painful sting. While those commonly sold in the US pet trade are not known to have caused fatalities, dangerous species have appeared, either accidentally or purposefully. Also, a serious allergic reaction to any venom is possible. Purchase scorpions only from reliable sources, and be sure you can identify those you are considering.

Scorpions adjust well to captivity, but cannot be “tamed” or “trusted”, and should not be touched with bare hands. Move scorpions by urging them into a clear container with long-handled tongs, or by inverting a container over the animal and sliding the cover below. Lifting by the “tail”, or telson, places you in danger and can injure the scorpion.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

That Reptile Blog » Breeding

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